Beta-Carotene: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews

Overview

Beta-carotene belongs to a group of colored pigments called carotenoids. It's converted to vitamin A in the body and found in many fruits and vegetables.

Beta-carotene and other red, orange, and yellow pigments called carotenoids are considered antioxidants. They provide about 50% of the vitamin A needed in the diet. Vitamin A is an essential nutrient. Its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects help to protect cells from damage.

People use beta-carotene for an inherited disorder marked by sensitivity to light. It is also used to prevent certain cancers, heart disease, cataracts, aging skin, and many other purposes, but there is no good scientific evidence to support most of these uses.

Many global health authorities recommend getting beta-carotene and other antioxidants from food instead of supplements.

Uses & Effectiveness

Effective for

An inherited disorder marked by sensitivity to light (erythropoietic protoporphyria or EPP). " Taking beta-carotene by mouth can reduce sensitivity to the sun in people with this condition.

Possibly Effective for

Breast cancer. Eating more beta-carotene in the diet is linked to a lower risk of breast cancer in high risk, pre-menopausal females. In people with breast cancer, eating more beta-carotene in the diet is linked to an increased chance of survival.
Complications after childbirth. Taking beta-carotene by mouth before, during, and after pregnancy might decrease the risk of diarrhea and fever after childbirth. It also seems to reduce the risk of pregnancy-related death.
Sunburn. Taking beta-carotene by mouth might decrease sunburn risk in people sensitive to the sun.

Possibly Ineffective for

Ballooning of a blood vessel wall (aneurysm). Taking beta-carotene by mouth doesn't reduce the risk for an aneurysm in the stomach in male smokers.
Alzheimer disease. Eating a diet high in beta-carotene does not seem to reduce the risk of Alzheimer disease.
Cataracts. Taking beta-carotene by mouth, alone or together with vitamin C, vitamin E, and zinc, doesn't seem to reduce the risk or progression of cataracts.
Cystic fibrosis. Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not improve lung function in people with cystic fibrosis.
Diabetes. Taking beta-carotene by mouth doesn't reduce the risk of developing diabetes or diabetes-related complications.
Non-cancerous moles (dysplastic nevi). Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not reduce the development of new moles.
Cancer of the esophagus. Taking beta-carotene by mouth doesn't seem to reduce the risk of esophageal cancer.
Liver cancer. Taking beta-carotene by mouth, alone or with vitamin E, does not prevent liver cancer in male smokers.
Liver disease. Taking beta-carotene by mouth, alone or with vitamin E, does not prevent death due to liver disease in male smokers.
Death from any cause. Taking beta-carotene by mouth doesn't seem to reduce the risk of death from any cause.
Stroke. Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not reduce the risk of stroke in male smokers. It might actually increase the risk in people who drink alcohol.

Likely InEffective for

Cancer. Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not reduce the risk for most types of cancer.
Heart disease. Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not reduce the risk for heart disease. It might actually increase the risk for heart disease-related death in some people.
Non-cancerous growths in the large intestine and rectum (colorectal adenoma). Taking beta-carotene by mouth does not decrease the risk of these growths. In people who smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol, taking beta-carotene supplements might actually increase the risk for these growths.
Lung cancer. Taking beta-carotene supplements by mouth seems to increase the risk of lung cancer in some people. Beta-carotene from food does not seem to have this effect.
Prostate cancer. Taking beta-carotene supplements by mouth does not prevent prostate cancer in most people. In fact, taking beta-carotene supplements might actually increase the risk of prostate cancer in some people.

There is interest in using beta-carotene for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful.

Side Effects

When taken by mouth: Beta-carotene is likely safe when taken in appropriate amounts for certain medical conditions. But beta-carotene supplements are not recommended for general use.

Beta-carotene supplements are possibly unsafe when taken by mouth in high doses, especially when taken long-term. High doses of beta-carotene can turn skin yellow or orange. Taking high doses of beta-carotene supplements might also increase the chance of death from all causes, increase the risk of certain cancers, and possibly cause other serious side effects. Beta-carotene from food does not seem to have these effects.

Special Precautions and Warnings

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Beta-carotene is likely safe when taken by mouth in appropriate amounts. But there isn't enough reliable information to know if high doses of beta-carotene are safe to use when pregnant or breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

Children: Beta-carotene is likely safe when taken by mouth in appropriate amounts.

History of asbestos exposure: In people who have been exposed to asbestos, beta-carotene supplements might increase the risk of cancer. Don't take beta-carotene supplements if you have been exposed to asbestos.

Smoking: In people who smoke, beta-carotene supplements might increase the risk of colon, lung, and prostate cancer. Don't take beta-carotene supplements if you smoke.

Interactions

Moderate Interaction

Be cautious with this combination

Niacin interacts with Beta-Carotene
Niacin can increase good cholesterol levels. Taking beta-carotene along with vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium can decrease the effects of niacin on good cholesterol levels. It is not known if beta-carotene alone decreases the effects of niacin on good cholesterol levels.

Dosing

Beta-carotene is found in many fruits and vegetables. Eating five servings of fruits and vegetables daily provides 6-8 mg of beta-carotene. Many global health authorities recommend getting beta-carotene and other antioxidants from food instead of supplements. Regularly taking beta-carotene supplements for general use isn't recommended. Speak with a healthcare provider to find out what dose might be best for a specific condition.

View References

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Renner, S., Rath, R., Rust, P., Lehr, S., Frischer, T., Elmadfa, I., and Eichler, I. Effects of beta-carotene supplementation for six months on clinical and laboratory parameters in patients with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 2001;56(1):48-52.

Jacobson, J. S., Begg, M. D., Wang, L. W., Wang, Q., Agarwal, M., Norkus, E., Singh, V. N., Young, T. L., Yang, D., and Santella, R. M. Effects of a 6-month vitamin intervention on DNA damage in heavy smokers. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9(12):1303-1311.

Mayne, S. T., Cartmel, B., Baum, M., Shor-Posner, G., Fallon, B. G., Briskin, K., Bean, J., Zheng, T., Cooper, D., Friedman, C., and Goodwin, W. J., Jr. Randomized trial of supplemental beta-carotene to prevent second head and neck cancer. Cancer Res. 2-15-2001;61(4):1457-1463.

Tornwall, M. E., Virtamo, J., Haukka, J. K., Albanes, D., and Huttunen, J. K. Alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) and beta-carotene supplementation does not affect the risk for large abdominal aortic aneurysm in a controlled trial. Atherosclerosis 2001;157(1):167-173.

You, W. C., Chang, Y. S., Heinrich, J., Ma, J. L., Liu, W. D., Zhang, L., Brown, L. M., Yang, C. S., Gail, M. H., Fraumeni, J. F., Jr., and Xu, G. W. An intervention trial to inhibit the progression of precancerous gastric lesions: compliance, serum micronutrients and S-allyl cysteine levels, and toxicity. Eur.J.Cancer Prev. 2001;10(3):257-263.

Hininger, I. A., Meyer-Wenger, A., Moser, U., Wright, A., Southon, S., Thurnham, D., Chopra, M., van den, Berg H., Olmedilla, B., Favier, A. E., and Roussel, A. M. No significant effects of lutein, lycopene or beta-carotene supplementation on biological markers of oxidative stress and LDL oxidizability in healthy adult subjects. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20(3):232-238.

Keefe, K. A., Schell, M. J., Brewer, C., McHale, M., Brewster, W., Chapman, J. A., Rose, G. S., McMeeken, D. S., Lagerberg, W., Peng, Y. M., Wilczynski, S. P., Anton-Culver, H., Meyskens, F. L., and Berman, M. L. A randomized, double blind, Phase III trial using oral beta-carotene supplementation for women with high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10(10):1029-1035.

Meijer, E. P., Goris, A. H., Senden, J., van Dongen, J. L., Bast, A., and Westerterp, K. R. Antioxidant supplementation and exercise-induced oxidative stress in the 60-year-old as measured by antipyrine hydroxylates. Br.J.Nutr. 2001;86(5):569-575.

Kennedy-Oji, C., Coutsoudis, A., Kuhn, L., Pillay, K., Mburu, A., Stein, Z., and Coovadia, H. Effects of vitamin A supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation on body weight of South African HIV-infected women. J.Health Popul.Nutr. 2001;19(3):167-176.

Ruiz, B., Garay, J., Correa, P., Fontham, E. T., Bravo, J. C., Bravo, L. E., Realpe, J. L., and Mera, R. Morphometric evaluation of gastric antral atrophy: improvement after cure of Helicobacter pylori infection. Am.J.Gastroenterol. 2001;96(12):3281-3287.

Kockar, C., Ozturk, M., and Bavbek, N. Helicobacter pylori eradication with beta carotene, ascorbic acid and allicin. Acta Medica.(Hradec.Kralove) 2001;44(3):97-100.

Ma, A., Duthie, S. J., Ross, M. A., and Collins, A. R. [Effects of vitamins E, C and beta-carotene on DNA damage]. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi.Xue.Za Zhi. 1999;33(1):16-17.

Lee, I. M., Cook, N. R., Manson, J. E., and Buring, J. E. Randomised beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease in women: is the association modified by baseline plasma level? Br.J.Cancer 3-4-2002;86(5):698-701.

Tauler, P., Aguilo, A., Fuentespina, E., Tur, J. A., and Pons, A. Diet supplementation with vitamin E, vitamin C and beta-carotene cocktail enhances basal neutrophil antioxidant enzymes in athletes. Pflugers Arch. 2002;443(5-6):791-797.

Schroder, H., Navarro, E., Mora, J., Galiano, D., and Tramullas, A. Effects of alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene and ascorbic acid on oxidative, hormonal and enzymatic exercise stress markers in habitual training activity of professional basketball players. Eur.J.Nutr. 2001;40(4):178-184.

McKechnie, R., Rubenfire, M., and Mosca, L. Antioxidant nutrient supplementation and brachial reactivity in patients with coronary artery disease. J.Lab Clin.Med. 2002;139(3):133-139.

Sackett, C. S. and Schenning, S. The age-related eye disease study: the results of the clinical trial. Insight. 2002;27(1):5-7.

Malila, N., Virtamo, J., Virtanen, M., Pietinen, P., Albanes, D., and Teppo, L. Dietary and serum alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene and retinol, and risk for colorectal cancer in male smokers. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2002;56(7):615-621.

Schmidt, M. C., Askew, E. W., Roberts, D. E., Prior, R. L., Ensign, W. Y., Jr., and Hesslink, R. E., Jr. Oxidative stress in humans training in a cold, moderate altitude environment and their response to a phytochemical antioxidant supplement. Wilderness.Environ.Med. 2002;13(2):94-105.

No author. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 7-6-2002;360(9326):23-33.

Watters, J. M., Vallerand, A., Kirkpatrick, S. M., Abbott, H. E., Norris, S., Wells, G., and Barber, G. G. Limited effects of micronutrient supplementation on strength and physical function after abdominal aortic aneurysmectomy. Clin.Nutr. 2002;21(4):321-327.

Schuurman, A. G., Goldbohm, R. A., Brants, H. A., and van den Brandt, P. A. A prospective cohort study on intake of retinol, vitamins C and E, and carotenoids and prostate cancer risk (Netherlands). Cancer Causes Control 2002;13(6):573-582.

Cobanoglu, N., Ozcelik, U., Gocmen, A., Kiper, N., and Dogru, D. Antioxidant effect of beta-carotene in cystic fibrosis and bronchiectasis: clinical and laboratory parameters of a pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 2002;91(7):793-798.

Greul, A. K., Grundmann, J. U., Heinrich, F., Pfitzner, I., Bernhardt, J., Ambach, A., Biesalski, H. K., and Gollnick, H. Photoprotection of UV-irradiated human skin: an antioxidative combination of vitamins E and C, carotenoids, selenium and proanthocyanidins. Skin Pharmacol Appl.Skin Physiol 2002;15(5):307-315.

Malila, N., Taylor, P. R., Virtanen, M. J., Korhonen, P., Huttunen, J. K., Albanes, D., and Virtamo, J. Effects of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on gastric cancer incidence in male smokers (ATBC Study, Finland). Cancer Causes Control 2002;13(7):617-623.

Thurmann, P. A., Steffen, J., Zwernemann, C., Aebischer, C. P., Cohn, W., Wendt, G., and Schalch, W. Plasma concentration response to drinks containing beta-carotene as carrot juice or formulated as a water dispersible powder. Eur J Nutr 2002;41(5):228-235.

Michaud, D. S., Pietinen, P., Taylor, P. R., Virtanen, M., Virtamo, J., and Albanes, D. Intakes of fruits and vegetables, carotenoids and vitamins A, E, C in relation to the risk of bladder cancer in the ATBC cohort study. Br.J.Cancer 10-21-2002;87(9):960-965.

Prince, M. I., Mitchison, H. C., Ashley, D., Burke, D. A., Edwards, N., Bramble, M. G., James, O. F., and Jones, D. E. Oral antioxidant supplementation for fatigue associated with primary biliary cirrhosis: results of a multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther. 2003;17(1):137-143.

Wood, L. G., Fitzgerald, D. A., Lee, A. K., and Garg, M. L. Improved antioxidant and fatty acid status of patients with cystic fibrosis after antioxidant supplementation is linked to improved lung function. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2003;77(1):150-159.

Heinrich, U., Gartner, C., Wiebusch, M., Eichler, O., Sies, H., Tronnier, H., and Stahl, W. Supplementation with beta-carotene or a similar amount of mixed carotenoids protects humans from UV-induced erythema. J Nutr 2003;133(1):98-101.

Christen, W. G., Manson, J. E., Glynn, R. J., Gaziano, J. M., Sperduto, R. D., Buring, J. E., and Hennekens, C. H. A randomized trial of beta carotene and age-related cataract in US physicians. Arch.Ophthalmol. 2003;121(3):372-378.

Zhu, S., Mason, J., Shi, Y., Hu, Y., Li, R., Wahg, M., Zhou, Y., Jin, G., Xie, Y., Wu, G., Xia, D., Qian, Z., Sohg, H., Zhang, L., Russell, R., and Xiao, S. The effect of folic acid on the development of stomach and other gastrointestinal cancers. Chin Med.J.(Engl.) 2003;116(1):15-19.

Darlington, S., Williams, G., Neale, R., Frost, C., and Green, A. A randomized controlled trial to assess sunscreen application and beta carotene supplementation in the prevention of solar keratoses. Arch.Dermatol. 2003;139(4):451-455.

Baron, J. A., Cole, B. F., Mott, L., Haile, R., Grau, M., Church, T. R., Beck, G. J., and Greenberg, E. R. Neoplastic and antineoplastic effects of beta-carotene on colorectal adenoma recurrence: results of a randomized trial. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 5-21-2003;95(10):717-722.

Sasazuki, S., Sasaki, S., Tsubono, Y., Okubo, S., Hayashi, M., Kakizoe, T., and Tsugane, S. The effect of 5-year vitamin C supplementation on serum pepsinogen level and Helicobacter pylori infection. Cancer Sci. 2003;94(4):378-382.

Bayerl, C., Schwarz, B., and Jung, E. G. A three-year randomized trial in patients with dysplastic naevi treated with oral beta-carotene. Acta Derm.Venereol. 2003;83(4):277-281.

Chandra, R. K. Effect of vitamin and trace-element supplementation on immune responses and infection in elderly subjects. Lancet 11-7-1992;340(8828):1124-1127. [RETRACTED].

Shibata, A., Paganini-Hill, A., Ross, R. K., and Henderson, B. E. Intake of vegetables, fruits, beta-carotene, vitamin C and vitamin supplements and cancer incidence among the elderly: a prospective study. Br.J.Cancer 1992;66(4):673-679.

Toma, S., Bonelli, L., Sartoris, A., Mira, E., Antonelli, A., Beatrice, F., Giordano, C., Benazzo, M., Caroggio, A., Cavalot, A. L., Gandolfo, S., Garozzo, A., Margarino, G., Schenone, G., Spadini, N., Zibordi, F., Balzarini, F., Serafini, I., Miani, P., and Cortesina, G. beta-carotene supplementation in patients radically treated for stage I-II head and neck cancer: results of a randomized trial. Oncol.Rep. 2003;10(6):1895-1901.

Hemila, H., Virtamo, J., Albanes, D., and Kaprio, J. Physical activity and the common cold in men administered vitamin E and beta-carotene. Med.Sci.Sports Exerc. 2003;35(11):1815-1820.

Cardinault, N., Tyssandier, V., Grolier, P., Winklhofer-Roob, B. M., Ribalta, J., Bouteloup-Demange, C., Rock, E., and Borel, P. Comparison of the postprandial chylomicron carotenoid responses in young and older subjects. Eur.J.Nutr. 2003;42(6):315-323.

Schaumberg, D. A., Frieling, U. M., Rifai, N., and Cook, N. No effect of beta-carotene supplementation on risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer among men with low baseline plasma beta-carotene. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13(6):1079-1080.

Tornwall, M. E., Virtamo, J., Korhonen, P. A., Virtanen, M. J., Albanes, D., and Huttunen, J. K. Postintervention effect of alpha tocopherol and beta carotene on different strokes: a 6-year follow-up of the Alpha Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Stroke 2004;35(8):1908-1913.

McKeever, T. M. and Britton, J. Diet and asthma. Am.J.Respir.Crit Care Med. 10-1-2004;170(7):725-729.

Lodi, G., Sardella, A., Bez, C., Demarosi, F., and Carrassi, A. Interventions for treating oral leukoplakia. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2004;(3):CD001829.

Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Simonetti, R. G., and Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for preventing gastrointestinal cancers. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2004;(4):CD004183.

McArdle, F., Rhodes, L. E., Parslew, R. A., Close, G. L., Jack, C. I., Friedmann, P. S., and Jackson, M. J. Effects of oral vitamin E and beta-carotene supplementation on ultraviolet radiation-induced oxidative stress in human skin. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2004;80(5):1270-1275.

Dijkhuizen, M. A., Wieringa, F. T., West, C. E., and Muhilal. Zinc plus beta-carotene supplementation of pregnant women is superior to beta-carotene supplementation alone in improving vitamin A status in both mothers and infants. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2004;80(5):1299-1307.

Goodman, G. E., Thornquist, M. D., Balmes, J., Cullen, M. R., Meyskens, F. L., Jr., Omenn, G. S., Valanis, B., and Williams, J. H., Jr. The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year follow-up after stopping beta-carotene and retinol supplements. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 12-1-2004;96(23):1743-1750.

Christen, W., Glynn, R., Sperduto, R., Chew, E., and Buring, J. Age-related cataract in a randomized trial of beta-carotene in women. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004;11(5):401-412.

Finley, J. W. Proposed criteria for assessing the efficacy of cancer reduction by plant foods enriched in carotenoids, glucosinolates, polyphenols and selenocompounds. Ann.Bot. 2005;95(7):1075-1096.

Ovesen, L. F. [Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of ischemic heart disease]. Ugeskr.Laeger 6-20-2005;167(25-31):2742-2747.

McNaughton, S. A., Marks, G. C., and Green, A. C. Role of dietary factors in the development of basal cell cancer and squamous cell cancer of the skin. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14(7):1596-1607.

Cho, E., Hunter, D. J., Spiegelman, D., Albanes, D., Beeson, W. L., van den Brandt, P. A., Colditz, G. A., Feskanich, D., Folsom, A. R., Fraser, G. E., Freudenheim, J. L., Giovannucci, E., Goldbohm, R. A., Graham, S., Miller, A. B., Rohan, T. E., Sellers, T. A., Virtamo, J., Willett, W. C., and Smith-Warner, S. A. Intakes of vitamins A, C and E and folate and multivitamins and lung cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 prospective studies. Int.J.Cancer 2-15-2006;118(4):970-978.

Irlam, J. H., Visser, M. E., Rollins, N., and Siegfried, N. Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev 2005;(4):CD003650.

Woodside, J. V., McCall, D., McGartland, C., and Young, I. S. Micronutrients: dietary intake v. supplement use. Proc Nutr Soc 2005;64(4):543-553.

Gritz, D. C., Srinivasan, M., Smith, S. D., Kim, U., Lietman, T. M., Wilkins, J. H., Priyadharshini, B., John, R. K., Aravind, S., Prajna, N. V., Duraisami, Thulasiraj R., and Whitcher, J. P. The Antioxidants in Prevention of Cataracts Study: effects of antioxidant supplements on cataract progression in South India. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(7):847-851.

Evans, J. R. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev 2006;(2):CD000254.

Worthington, H. V., Clarkson, J. E., and Eden, O. B. Interventions for preventing oral mucositis for patients with cancer receiving treatment. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2006;(2):CD000978.

Coulter, I. D., Hardy, M. L., Morton, S. C., Hilton, L. G., Tu, W., Valentine, D., and Shekelle, P. G. Antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin e for the prevention and treatment of cancer. J Gen.Intern Med 2006;21(7):735-744.

Bjelakovic, G., Nagorni, A., Nikolova, D., Simonetti, R. G., Bjelakovic, M., and Gluud, C. Meta-analysis: antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention of colorectal adenoma. Aliment.Pharmacol Ther 7-15-2006;24(2):281-291.

Chiu, C. J. and Taylor, A. Nutritional antioxidants and age-related cataract and maculopathy. Exp.Eye Res. 2007;84(2):229-245.

Huang, H. Y., Caballero, B., Chang, S., Alberg, A. J., Semba, R. D., Schneyer, C. R., Wilson, R. F., Cheng, T. Y., Vassy, J., Prokopowicz, G., Barnes, G. J., and Bass, E. B. The efficacy and safety of multivitamin and mineral supplement use to prevent cancer and chronic disease in adults: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health state-of-the-science conference. Ann.Intern.Med. 9-5-2006;145(5):372-385.

Kamangar, F., Qiao, Y. L., Yu, B., Sun, X. D., Abnet, C. C., Fan, J. H., Mark, S. D., Zhao, P., Dawsey, S. M., and Taylor, P. R. Lung cancer chemoprevention: a randomized, double-blind trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15(8):1562-1564.

Bleys, J., Miller, E. R., III, Pastor-Barriuso, R., Appel, L. J., and Guallar, E. Vitamin-mineral supplementation and the progression of atherosclerosis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am.J Clin.Nutr 2006;84(4):880-887.

Lodi, G., Sardella, A., Bez, C., Demarosi, F., and Carrassi, A. Interventions for treating oral leukoplakia. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2006;(4):CD001829.

Mannisto, S., Yaun, S. S., Hunter, D. J., Spiegelman, D., Adami, H. O., Albanes, D., van den Brandt, P. A., Buring, J. E., Cerhan, J. R., Colditz, G. A., Freudenheim, J. L., Fuchs, C. S., Giovannucci, E., Goldbohm, R. A., Harnack, L., Leitzmann, M., McCullough, M. L., Miller, A. B., Rohan, T. E., Schatzkin, A., Virtamo, J., Willett, W. C., Wolk, A., Zhang, S. M., and Smith-Warner, S. A. Dietary carotenoids and risk of colorectal cancer in a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2-1-2007;165(3):246-255.

Seddon, J. M. Multivitamin-multimineral supplements and eye disease: age-related macular degeneration and cataract. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2007;85(1):304S-307S.

Greenwald, P., Anderson, D., Nelson, S. A., and Taylor, P. R. Clinical trials of vitamin and mineral supplements for cancer prevention. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2007;85(1):314S-317S.

Plummer, M., Vivas, J., Lopez, G., Bravo, J. C., Peraza, S., Carillo, E., Cano, E., Castro, D., Andrade, O., Sanchez, V., Garcia, R., Buiatti, E., Aebischer, C., Franceschi, S., Oliver, W., and Munoz, N. Chemoprevention of precancerous gastric lesions with antioxidant vitamin supplementation: a randomized trial in a high-risk population. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 1-17-2007;99(2):137-146.

Liu, B. A., McGeer, A., McArthur, M. A., Simor, A. E., Aghdassi, E., Davis, L., and Allard, J. P. Effect of multivitamin and mineral supplementation on episodes of infection in nursing home residents: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J.Am.Geriatr.Soc. 2007;55(1):35-42.

Wright, M. E., Virtamo, J., Hartman, A. M., Pietinen, P., Edwards, B. K., Taylor, P. R., Huttunen, J. K., and Albanes, D. Effects of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on upper aerodigestive tract cancers in a large, randomized controlled trial. Cancer 3-1-2007;109(5):891-898.

No author. NIH State-of-the-Science Conference Statement on Multivitamin/Mineral Supplements and Chronic Disease Prevention. NIH Consens.State Sci.Statements. 5-15-2006;23(2):1-30.

Von Low, E. C., Perabo, F. G., Siener, R., and Muller, S. C. Review. Facts and fiction of phytotherapy for prostate cancer: a critical assessment of preclinical and clinical data. In Vivo 2007;21(2):189-204.

Michels, K. B., Mohllajee, A. P., Roset-Bahmanyar, E., Beehler, G. P., and Moysich, K. B. Diet and breast cancer: a review of the prospective observational studies. Cancer 6-15-2007;109(12 Suppl):2712-2749.

Kubo, A. and Corley, D. A. Meta-analysis of antioxidant intake and the risk of esophageal and gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. Am.J.Gastroenterol. 2007;102(10):2323-2330.

Cook, N. R., Albert, C. M., Gaziano, J. M., Zaharris, E., MacFadyen, J., Danielson, E., Buring, J. E., and Manson, J. E. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and beta carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the Women's Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study. Arch.Intern.Med. 8-13-2007;167(15):1610-1618.

Hercberg, S., Ezzedine, K., Guinot, C., Preziosi, P., Galan, P., Bertrais, S., Estaquio, C., Briancon, S., Favier, A., Latreille, J., and Malvy, D. Antioxidant supplementation increases the risk of skin cancers in women but not in men. J.Nutr. 2007;137(9):2098-2105.

Gray, J., Mao, J. T., Szabo, E., Kelley, M., Kurie, J., and Bepler, G. Lung cancer chemoprevention: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd Edition). Chest 2007;132(3 Suppl):56S-68S.

Chong, E. W., Wong, T. Y., Kreis, A. J., Simpson, J. A., and Guymer, R. H. Dietary antioxidants and primary prevention of age related macular degeneration: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 10-13-2007;335(7623):755.

Bath-Hextall, F., Leonardi-Bee, J., Somchand, N., Webster, A., Delitt, J., and Perkins, W. Interventions for preventing non-melanoma skin cancers in high-risk groups. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2007;(4):CD005414.

Werneke, U. Risk management of nutritional supplements in chronic illness: the implications for the care of cancer and depression. Proc.Nutr.Soc. 2007;66(4):483-492.

Grodstein, F., Kang, J. H., Glynn, R. J., Cook, N. R., and Gaziano, J. M. A randomized trial of beta carotene supplementation and cognitive function in men: the Physicians' Health Study II. Arch.Intern.Med. 11-12-2007;167(20):2184-2190.

Grieger, J. A., Nowson, C. A., Jarman, H. F., Malon, R., and Ackland, L. M. Multivitamin supplementation improves nutritional status and bone quality in aged care residents. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2009;63(4):558-565.

Christen, W. G., Glynn, R. J., Chew, E. Y., and Buring, J. E. Vitamin E and age-related cataract in a randomized trial of women. Ophthalmology 2008;115(5):822-829.

Jones, A. A. Age related macular degeneration--should your patients be taking additional supplements? Aust.Fam.Physician 2007;36(12):1026-1028.

Kopcke, W. and Krutmann, J. Protection from sunburn with beta-Carotene--a meta-analysis. Photochem.Photobiol. 2008;84(2):284-288.

Bardia, A., Tleyjeh, I. M., Cerhan, J. R., Sood, A. K., Limburg, P. J., Erwin, P. J., and Montori, V. M. Efficacy of antioxidant supplementation in reducing primary cancer incidence and mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin.Proc. 2008;83(1):23-34.

Evans, J. R. and Henshaw, K. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for preventing age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(1):CD000253.

O'Neil, C., Shevill, E., and Chang, A. B. Vitamin A supplementation for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(1):CD006751.

Ye, Z. and Song, H. Antioxidant vitamins intake and the risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur.J.Cardiovasc.Prev.Rehabil. 2008;15(1):26-34.

Gao, J., Gao, X., Li, W., Zhu, Y., and Thompson, P. J. Observational studies on the effect of dietary antioxidants on asthma: a meta-analysis. Respirology. 2008;13(4):528-536.

Evans, J. Antioxidant supplements to prevent or slow down the progression of AMD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eye (Lond) 2008;22(6):751-760.

Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Gluud, L. L., Simonetti, R. G., and Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(2):CD007176.

Tanvetyanon, T. and Bepler, G. Beta-carotene in multivitamins and the possible risk of lung cancer among smokers versus former smokers: a meta-analysis and evaluation of national brands. Cancer 7-1-2008;113(1):150-157.

Loane, E., Kelliher, C., Beatty, S., and Nolan, J. M. The rationale and evidence base for a protective role of macular pigment in age-related maculopathy. Br.J.Ophthalmol. 2008;92(9):1163-1168.

Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Simonetti, R. G., and Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for preventing gastrointestinal cancers. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(3):CD004183.

Gallicchio, L., Boyd, K., Matanoski, G., Tao, X. G., Chen, L., Lam, T. K., Shiels, M., Hammond, E., Robinson, K. A., Caulfield, L. E., Herman, J. G., Guallar, E., and Alberg, A. J. Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2008;88(2):372-383.

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Beta-Carotene - Uses, Side Effects, and More