Vitamin E: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews

Overview

Vitamin E is a vitamin that dissolves in fat. It is found in many foods including vegetable oils, cereals, meat, poultry, eggs, and fruits.

Vitamin E is an important vitamin required for the proper function of many organs in the body. It is also an antioxidant. Vitamin E that occurs naturally in foods (RRR-alpha-tocopherol) is different from man-made vitamin E that is in supplements (all-rac-alpha-tocopherol).

Vitamin E is used for treating vitamin E deficiency, which is rare, but can occur in people with certain genetic disorders and in very low-weight premature infants. Vitamin E is also used for depression, high blood pressure, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support many of these other uses.

Uses & Effectiveness

Effective for

An inherited condition that affects motor control (ataxia with vitamin E deficiency or AVED). Taking vitamin E by mouth is effective for treating vitamin E deficiency due to this genetic movement disorder.
Vitamin E deficiency. Taking vitamin E by mouth is effective for preventing and treating vitamin E deficiency.

Possibly Effective for

Alzheimer disease. Taking vitamin E supplements by mouth doesn't seem to prevent Alzheimer disease from developing. But in people who already have Alzheimer disease, taking vitamin E along with some anti-Alzheimer medicines might slow down memory loss.
A blood disorder that reduces levels of protein in the blood called hemoglobin (beta-thalassemia). Taking vitamin E by mouth seems to benefit children with this blood disorder.
Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea). Taking vitamin E by mouth for 2 days before bleeding and for 3 days after bleeding starts seems to decrease pain and reduce menstrual blood loss.
Muscle damage caused by exercise. Taking vitamin E by mouth while following an exercise program seems to decrease muscle damage caused by exercise.
An inherited disorder that causes red blood cells to break down in response to stress (G6PD deficiency). Taking vitamin E by mouth, alone or together with selenium, might benefit people with this condition.
Bleeding within the skull (intracranial hemorrhage). Taking vitamin E by mouth seems to reduce the risk of bleeding in the skull in premature infants.
Bleeding into or around the fluid-filled areas (ventricles) of the brain (intraventricular hemorrhage). Giving vitamin E by mouth to premature infants can reduce the risk for bleeding into the brain. But giving high doses of vitamin E might increase the risk for a serious blood infection (sepsis) in these infants.
Reduced benefit of nitrate therapy that happens when nitrates are used all day (nitrate tolerance). Taking vitamin E by mouth daily can help prevent nitrate tolerance.
Swelling (inflammation) and build up of fat in the liver in people who drink little or no alcohol (nonalcoholic steatohepatitis or NASH). Taking vitamin E by mouth daily seems to improve inflammation and liver markers of this form of liver disease in adults and children.
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Taking vitamin E by mouth seems to reduce anxiety, craving, depression, fatigue, and irritability in some people with PMS.
A movement disorder often caused by antipsychotic drugs (tardive dyskinesia). Taking vitamin E by mouth seems to improve symptoms associated with this movement disorder.

Possibly Ineffective for

An eye disease that leads to vision loss in older adults (age-related macular degeneration or AMD). Taking vitamin E by mouth, alone or along with other antioxidants, isn't effective for preventing or treating age-related vision loss.
Lou Gehrig's disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS). Taking vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) by mouth along with conventional medication doesn't affect function or increase survival rates in people with ALS.
Chest pain (angina). Taking vitamin E by mouth might have some effect on the functioning of blood vessels, but it doesn't appear to reduce chest pain.
Hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Taking vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol) by mouth doesn't appear to reduce the hardening of arteries in people with this condition.
Eczema (atopic dermatitis). Taking vitamin E by mouth, alone or along with selenium, doesn't improve symptoms of eczema.
Hot flashes in people treated for breast cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to reduce hot flashes in females who have had breast cancer.
A lung disease that affects newborns (bronchopulmonary dysplasia). Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to reduce an infant's risk for developing this lung disease.
Cataracts. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't prevent cataracts.
Nerve damage in the hands and feet caused by cancer drug treatment. Taking vitamin E before and after treatment with certain cancer drugs does not reduce the risk of nerve damage.
Colon cancer, rectal cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't reduce the risk for colon cancer or rectal cancer.
Heart failure and fluid build up in the body (congestive heart failure or CHF). Taking vitamin E by mouth for 12 weeks doesn't seem to improve heart function in people with CHF. It also doesn't decrease the chance of developing CHF.
Head and neck cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth daily doesn't seem to reduce the risk of head and neck cancer returning. In fact, it might actually increase the risk of the cancer returning. People with head and neck cancer should avoid daily vitamin E supplements in doses of more than 400 IU daily.
Infants with birth weight below the 10th percentile due to inadequate nutrition. Taking vitamin E by mouth throughout pregnancy doesn't lower the risk of having a baby with a low birth weight because of inadequate nutrition while in the womb.
Liver disease. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't reduce the risk of death in people with liver disease.
White patches inside the mouth that are usually caused by smoking (oral leukoplakia). Taking vitamin E by mouth for up to 7 years doesn't reduce the risk for mouth sores in males who smoke.
Osteoarthritis. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to decrease pain or stiffness in people with osteoarthritis. Vitamin E also doesn't seem to prevent osteoarthritis from becoming worse.
Pancreatic cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth, alone or together with other antioxidants such as beta-carotene and vitamin C, doesn't seem to reduce the risk for pancreatic cancer.
Parkinson disease. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to reduce or slow the worsening of Parkinson disease symptoms.
A type of throat cancer (pharyngeal cancer). Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to reduce the risk of mouth or pharyngeal cancer in people with diabetes.
A pregnancy complication marked by high blood pressure and protein in the urine (pre-eclampsia). Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to reduce the risk of high blood pressure during pregnancy.
Preterm birth. Taking vitamin E by mouth during pregnancy doesn't lower the risk for preterm birth.
Prostate cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't reduce the risk for prostate cancer. It might actually increase the risk in some people.
Infection of the airways. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to help prevent respiratory tract infections. It also doesn't seem to lessen symptoms in people with a respiratory infection.
An inherited eye condition that causes poor night vision and loss of side vision (retinitis pigmentosa). Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to slow vision loss, and might actually increase vision loss in people with this condition.
Scarring. Applying vitamin E to the skin doesn't seem to reduce scarring after surgery.
Stillbirth. Taking vitamin E by mouth throughout pregnancy doesn't lower the risk of stillbirth.

Likely InEffective for

Breast cancer. Increasing vitamin E intake from the diet or taking vitamin E supplements by mouth doesn't reduce the risk for breast cancer.
Cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't lower overall cancer risk.
Heart disease. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't prevent heart disease in healthy people or those at risk. It also doesn't seem to prevent stroke or heart attack in people with heart disease.
Death of an unborn or premature baby. Giving vitamin E by mouth to preterm infants doesn't seem to reduce the risk of death in the infant.
A type of benign (non-cancerous) breast disease (fibrocystic breast disease). Taking vitamin E by mouth for 2-3 months doesn't help treat fibrocystic breast disease.
Lung cancer. Taking vitamin E by mouth for up to 8 years doesn't reduce the risk of developing lung cancer in males who smoke.
Death from any cause. Taking vitamin E by mouth doesn't reduce the risk of death from any cause.
Growth and development in premature infants. Giving vitamin E by mouth doesn't seem to prevent or treat anemia in preterm infants.

There is interest in using vitamin E for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful.

Side Effects

When taken by mouth: Vitamin E is likely safe for most people when taken in doses lower than 1000 mg daily. This is the same as 1100 IU of synthetic vitamin E (all-rac-alpha-tocopherol) or 1500 IU of natural vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol). The risk of side effects increases with higher doses. Side effects can include nausea, fatigue, headache, and bleeding. Vitamin E is possibly unsafe when taken in doses greater than 1000 mg daily.

When applied to the skin: Vitamin E is likely safe for most people.

When inhaled: Vitamin E is possibly unsafe. Use of e-cigarettes and other vaping products containing vitamin E acetate has been linked to serious lung injury in some people.

Special Precautions and Warnings

Pregnancy: When used in the recommended daily amount, vitamin E is possibly safe during pregnancy. Do not take vitamin E supplements during the first 8 weeks of pregnancy without speaking with your healthcare provider. It might be harmful to the baby. Later in pregnancy, the maximum recommended amount of vitamin E is 800 mg in those 14-18 years of age and 1000 mg in those older than 18 years of age.

Breast-feeding: Vitamin E is likely safe when taken by mouth in recommended daily amounts. The maximum recommended amount of vitamin E while breast-feeding is 800 mg in those 14-18 years of age and 1000 mg in those older than 18 years of age. Vitamin E is possibly unsafe when taken in doses greater than the maximum recommended amount.

Children: Vitamin E is likely safe when taken by mouth appropriately. But children should avoid taking doses of vitamin E higher than the daily upper limits. These limits are 300 IU in children 1-3 years of age, 450 IU in children 4-8 years of age, 900 IU in children 9-13 years of age, and 1200 IU in children 14-18 years of age.

Bleeding disorders: Vitamin E might make bleeding disorders worse. If you have a bleeding disorder, avoid taking vitamin E supplements.

Heart disease: Vitamin E might increase the risk for death in people with a history of heart disease. People with a history of heart disease should avoid taking doses of vitamin E greater than 400 IU daily.

Diabetes: Vitamin E might increase the risk for heart failure in people with diabetes. People with diabetes should avoid taking doses of vitamin E greater than 400 IU daily.

Head and neck cancer: Vitamin E might increase the chance that this cancer will return. Do not take vitamin E supplements in doses greater than 400 IU daily.

Weak and brittle bones (osteoporosis): Exercise is sometimes used by people with osteoporosis to improve bone strength. Exercising and taking high doses of vitamin E and vitamin C might lessen the benefits of exercise on bone strength.

Prostate cancer: Vitamin E might increase the chance of developing prostate cancer. The effect of vitamin E in people who currently have prostate cancer isn't clear, but it might worsen the condition.

An inherited eye condition that causes poor night vision and loss of side vision (retinitis pigmentosa): All-rac-alpha-tocopherol (synthetic vitamin E) 400 IU seems to speed vision loss in people with this condition. But much lower amounts (3 IU) don't seem to have this effect. If you have this condition, it is best to avoid vitamin E supplements.

Stroke: Vitamin E might increase the risk for death in some people with a history of stroke. People with a history of stroke should avoid taking doses of vitamin E greater than 400 IU daily.

Surgery: Vitamin E might increase the risk of bleeding during and after surgery. Stop using vitamin E supplements at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.

Interactions

Moderate Interaction

Be cautious with this combination

Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune) interacts with Vitamin E
Taking large amounts of vitamin E along with cyclosporine might increase how much cyclosporine the body absorbs. This might increase the effects and side effects of cyclosporine.
Medications changed by the liver (Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrates) interacts with Vitamin E
Some medications are changed and broken down by the liver. Vitamin E might change how quickly the liver breaks down these medications. This could change the effects and side effects of these medications.
Medications for cancer (Alkylating agents) interacts with Vitamin E
Vitamin E is an antioxidant. There is some concern that antioxidants might decrease the effects of some medications used for cancer. If you are taking medications for cancer, check with your healthcare provider before taking vitamin E.
Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with Vitamin E
Vitamin E might slow blood clotting. Taking vitamin E along with medications that also slow blood clotting might increase the risk of bruising and bleeding.
Niacin interacts with Vitamin E
Taking niacin along with the drug simvastatin can increase good cholesterol levels. Taking niacin plus simvastatin along with vitamin E and other antioxidants can decrease the effects of niacin and simvastatin on good cholesterol levels. It is unknown if vitamin E alone decreases the effects of niacin plus simvastatin on good cholesterol levels.
Warfarin (Coumadin) interacts with Vitamin E
Warfarin is used to slow blood clotting. Vitamin E can also slow blood clotting. Taking vitamin E along with warfarin can increase the chances of bruising and bleeding. Be sure to have your blood checked regularly. The dose of your warfarin might need to be changed.
Antibiotics for cancer (Antitumor antibiotics) interacts with Vitamin E
Vitamin E is an antioxidant. There is some concern that antioxidants might decrease the effects of medications used for cancer. If you are taking medications for cancer, check with your healthcare provider before taking vitamin E.
Selumetinib (Koselugo) interacts with Vitamin E
Selumetinib, a drug used for cancer, contains vitamin E. Taking selumetinib with vitamin E-containing supplements can result in an unsafe dose of vitamin E. This could increase the risk of bleeding.

Dosing

Vitamin E is an important nutrient. Vegetable oils, cereals, meat, poultry, eggs, fruits, and wheat germ oil are good sources of vitamin E. The amount that should be consumed on a daily basis is called the recommended dietary allowance (RDA). The RDA for natural vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol) in adults is 15 mg (22 IU), 15 mg (22 IU) during pregnancy, and 19 mg (28 IU) when breastfeeding.

Keep in mind that the doses of natural vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol) and vitamin E that has been made in the lab (all-rac-alpha-tocopherol) are calculated differently. This can make supplement dosing confusing. The American Heart Association recommends obtaining vitamin E by eating a well-balanced diet rather than from supplements until more is known about the risks and benefits of these supplements.

View References

REFERENCES:

United States Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc., ed. Drug Information for the Health Care Professional. 19th ed. Englewood, CO: Micromedex Inc., 1999.

McEvoy GK, ed. AHFS Drug Information. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 1998.

Berson EL, Rosner B, Sandberg MA, et al. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:761-72.

Gamel JW, Barr CC. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1462-3.

Fielder AR. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1463;discussion 1463-6.

Clowes DD. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1461-2.

Norton EW. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1460.

Marmor MF. A randomized trial of vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation for retinitis pigmentosa. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1460-1.

Lavine JE. Vitamin E treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in children: a pilot study. J Pediatr 2000;136:734-8.

Kim JM, White RH. Effect of vitamin E on the anticoagulant response to warfarin. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:545-6.

Corrigan JJ Jr. The effect of vitamin E on warfarin-induced vitamin K deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1982;393:361-8.

Corrigan JJ Jr. Coagulation problems relating to vitamin E. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1979;1:169-73.

Corrigan JJ Jr, Marcus FI. Coagulopathy associated with vitamin E ingestion. JAMA 1974;230:1300-1.

Surai PF, MacPherson A, Speake BK, Sparks NH. Designer egg evaluation in a controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:298-305.

Meydani M. Effect of functional food ingredients: vitamin E modulation of cardiovascular diseases and immune status in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1665S-8S.

Jonas CR, Puckett AB, Jones DP, et al. Plasma antioxidant status after high-dose chemotherapy: a randomized trial of parenteral nutrition in bone marrow transplantation patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:181-9.

Burton GW, Traber MG, Acuff RV, et al. Human plasma and tissue alpha-tocopherol concentrations in response to supplementation with deuterated natural and synthetic vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:669-84.

Vatassery GT, Bauer T, Dysken M. On the biological activity of vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:202-3.

Kayden HJ, Wisniewski T. On the biological activity of vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:201-3.

Cohn W. Evaluation of vitamin E potency. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:156-8.

Horwitt MK, Elliott WH, Kanjananggulpan P, Fitch CD. Serum concentrations of alpha-tocopherol after ingestion of various vitamin E preparations. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:240-5.

Morris M, Beckett L, Scherr P, et al. Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of incident Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1998;12:121-6.

Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas R, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1216-22.

Kiyose C, Muramatsu R, Kameyama Y, et al. Biodiscrimination of alpha-tocopherol stereoisomers in humans after oral administration. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:785-9.

Baker H, Handelman GJ, Short S, et al. Comparison of plasma alpha and gamma tocopherol levels following chronic oral administration of either all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate or RRR-alpha-tocopheryl acetate in normal adult male subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;43:382-7.

van Tits LJ, Demacker PN, de Graaf J, et al. Alpha-tocopherol supplementation decreases production of superoxide and cytokines by leukocytes ex vivo in both normolipidemic and hypertriglyceridemic individuals. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:458-64.

Baker JC, Tunnicliffe WS, Duncanson RC, Ayres JG. Dietary antioxidants and magnesium in type 1 brittle asthma: a case control study. Thorax 1999;54:115-8.

Vetrugno M, Maino A, Cardia G, et al. A randomised, double masked, clinical trial of high dose vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation after photorefractive keratectomy. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:537-9.

Labriola D, Livingston R. Possible interactions between dietary antioxidants and chemotherapy. Oncology 1999;13:1003-8.

Kelly FJ, Mudway I, Blomberg A, et al. Altered lung antioxidant status in patients with mild asthma. Lancet 1999;354:482-3.

Powell CV, Nash AA, Powers HJ, Primhak RA. Antioxidant status in asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol 1994;18:34-8.

Kalayci O, Besler T, Kilinc K, et al. Serum levels of antioxidant vitamins (alpha tocopherol, beta carotene, and ascorbic acid) in children with bronchial asthma. Turk J Pediatr 2000;42:17-21.

Barton DL, Loprinzi CL, Quella SK, et al. Prospective evaluation of vitamin E for hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol 1998;16:495-500.

Chang T, Benet LZ, Hebert MF. The effect of water-soluble vitamin E on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996;59:297-303.

Pan SH, Lopez RR Jr, Sher LS, et al. Enhanced oral cyclosporine absorption with water-soluble vitamin E early after liver transplantation. Pharmacother 1996;16:59-65.

White E, Shannon JS, Patterson RE. Relationship between vitamin and calcium supplement use and colon cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:769-74.

Leppala JM, Virtamo J, Fogelholm R, et al. Controlled trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on stroke incidence and mortality in male smokers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:230-5.

Tribble DL. AHA Science Advisory. Antioxidant consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: emphasis on vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 1999;99:591-5.

Zhang S, Hunter DJ, Forman MR, et al. Dietary carotenoids and vitamins A, C, and E and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:547-56.

Gann PH, Ma J, Giovannucci E, et al. Lower prostate cancer risk in men with elevated plasma lycopene levels: results of a prospective analysis. Cancer Res 1999;59:1225-30.

Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, et al. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:2102-6.

Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Hernan MA, et al. Relation of consumption of vitamin E, vitamin C, and carotenoids to risk for stroke among men in the United States. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:963-70.

Melia AT, Koss-Twardy SG, Zhi J. The effect of orlistat, an inhibitor of dietary fat absorption, on the absorption of vitamins A and E in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 1996;36:647-53.

Roche, Inc. Xenical package insert. Nutley, NJ. May 1999.

Soares KV, McGrath JJ. The treatment of tardive dyskinesia- a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 1999;39:1-16; discussion 17-18.

Salonen JT, Nyyssonen K, Salonen R, et al. Antioxidant Supplementation in Atherosclerosis Prevention (ASAP) study: a randomized trial of the effect of vitamins E and C on 3-year progression of carotid atherosclerosis. J Intern Med 2000;248:377-86.

Gale CR, Martyn CN, Winter PD, Cooper C. Vitamin C and risk of death from stroke and coronary heart disease in cohort of elderly people. BMJ 1995;310:1563-6.

Tseng M, Murray SC, Kupper LL, Sandler RS. Micronutrients and the risk of colorectal adenomas. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:1005-14.

Anon. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Soprawivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 1999;354:447-55.

Hankinson SE, Stampfer MJ, Seddon JM, et al. Nutrient intake and cataract extraction in women: a prospective study. BMJ 1992;305:335-9.

Tzonou A, Signorello LB, Lagiou P, et al. Diet and cancer of the prostate: a case-control study in Greece. Int J Cancer 1999;80:704-8.

Correa P, Fontham ETH, Bravo JC, et al. Chemoprevention of gastric dysplasia: randomized trial of antioxidant supplements and anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1881-8.

Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, et al. Alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study: effects of baseline characteristics and study compliance. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:1560-70.

Green A, Williams G, Neale R, et al. Daily sunscreen applications and beta-carotene supplementation in prevention of basal-cell and squamous-cell carcinomas of the skin: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999;354:723-9.

Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1150-5.

Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta-carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1145-9.

Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR. Nutritional intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1483-92.

Mark SD, Wang W, Fraumeni JF Jr, et al. Do nutritional supplements lower the risk of stroke or hypertension? Epidemiology 1998;9:9-15.

Frank J, Weiser H, Biesalski HK. Interaction of vitamins E and K: effect of high dietary vitamin E on phylloquinone activity in chicks. Int J Vit Nutr Res 1997;67:242-7.

Helson L. The effect of intravenous vitamin E and menadiol sodium diphosphate on vitamin K dependent clotting factors. Thromb Res 1984;35:11-8.

Chappell LC, Seed PT, Briley AL, et al. Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:810-6.

Mensink RP, van Houwelingen AC, Kromhout D, Hornstra G. A vitamin E concentrate rich in tocotrienols had no effect on serum lipids, lipoproteins, or platelet function in men with mildly elevated serum lipid concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:213-9.

Qureshi AA, Qureshi N, Wright JJ, et al. Lowering of serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic humans by tocotrienols (palmvitee). Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:1021S-6S.

Tomeo AC, Geller M, Watkins TR, et al. Antioxidant effects of tocotrienols in patients with hyperlipidemia and carotid stenosis. Lipids 1995;30:1179-83.

Qureshi AA, Bradlow BA, Brace L, et al. Response of hypercholesterolemic subjects to administration of tocotrienols. Lipids 1995;30:1171-7.

Qureshi AA, Bradlow BA, Slaser WA, et al. Novel tocotrienols of rice bran modulate cardiovascular disease risk parameters of hypercholesterolemic humans. Nutr Biochem 1997;8:290-8.

Sullivan C, Capaldi N, Mack G, et al. Seizures and natural Vitamin E. Med J Aust 1990;152:613-4.

Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, et al. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease: randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000;356:1213-8.

Leppala JM, Virtamo J, Fogelholm R, et al. Vitamin E and Beta Carotene supplementation in high risk for stroke: a subgroup analysis of the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study. Arch Neurol 2000;57:1503-9.

Palli D, Russo A, Saieva C, et al. Dietary and familial determinants of 10-year survival among patients with gastric carcinoma. Cancer 2000;89:1205-13.

Israel K, Yu W, Sanders BG, Kline K. Vitamin E succinate induces apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells: role for Fas in vitamin E succinate-triggered apoptosis. Nutr Cancer 2000;36:90-100.

Geva E, Bartoov B, Zabludovsky N, et al. The effect of antioxidant treatment on human spermatozoa and fertilization rate in an in vitro fertilization program. Fertil Steril 1996;66:430-4.

Vezina D, Mauffette F, Roberts KD, et al. Selenium-vitamin E supplementation in infertile men. Effects on semen parameters and micronutrient levels and distribution. Biol Trace Elem Res 1996;53:65-83.

Vitamin E for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter 1999;15(1):150105.

Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342:154-60.

Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Manson JE, et al. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1444-9.

Lonn E, Yusuf S, Dzavik V, et al. Effects of ramipril and vitamin E on atherosclerosis: the study to evaluate carotid ultrasound changes in patients treated with ramipril and vitamin E (SECURE). Circulation 2001;103:919-25.

Keith ME, Jeejeebhoy KN, Langer A, et al. A controlled clinical trial of vitamin E supplementation in patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73:219-24.

Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project. Low-dose aspirin and vitamin E in people at cardiovascular risk: a randomised trial in general practice. Lancet 2001;357:89-95.

Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, et al. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1450-6.

Kushi LH, Folsom AR, Prineas RJ, et al. Dietary antioxidant vitamins and death from coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1156-62.

Virtamo J, Rapola JM, Ripatti S, et al. Effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of primary nonfatal myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:668-75.

Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, et al. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study. Lancet 1996;347:781-6.

Rapola JM, Virtamo J, Ripatti S, et al. Randomised trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events in men with previous myocardial infarction. Lancet 1997;349:1715-20.

Losonczy KG, Harris TB, Havlik RJ. Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of all-cause and coronary heart disease mortality in older persons:epidemiologic studies of the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:190-6.

Anon. Vitamin E health claim falls short of significant scientific agreement - FDA. FDC Reports: The Tan Sheet. January 24, 2000;10.

Adler LA, Edson R, Lavori P, et al. Long-term treatment effects of vitamin E for tardive dyskinesia. Biol Psychiatry 1998;43:868-72.

Sajjad SH. Vitamin E in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a preliminary study over 7 months at different doses. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1998;13:147-55.

Lohr JB, Caligiuri MP. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of vitamin E treatment of tardive dyskinesia. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:167-73.

Shriqui CL, Bradwejn J, Annable L, Jones BD. Vitamin E in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:391-3.

Dorfman-Etrog P, Hermesh H, Prilipko L, et al. The effect of vitamin E addition to acute neuroleptic treatment on the emergence of extrapyramidal side effects in schizophrenic patients: an open label study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1999;9:475-7.

Boomershine KH, Shelton PS, Boomershine JE. Vitamin E in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia. Ann Pharmacother 1999;33:1195-202.

Dabiri LM, Pasta D, Darby JK, Mosbacher D. Effectiveness of vitamin E for treatment of long-term tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:925-6.

The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1029-35.

Liede K, Hietanen J, Saxen L, et al. Long-term supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene and prevalence of oral mucosal lesions in smokers. Oral Dis 1998;4:78-83.

Malila N, Virtamo J, Virtanen M, et al. The effect of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on colorectal adenomas in middle-aged male smokers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999;8:489-93.

Roncucci L, Di Donato P, Carati L, et al. Antioxidant vitamins or lactulose for the prevention of the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. Colorectal Cancer Study Group of the Univ of Modena and the Health Care Dist 16. Dis Colon Rectum 1993;36:227-34.

Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Tosteson TD, et al. A clinical trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent colorectal adenoma. Polyp Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1994;331:141-7.

Paganelli GM, Biasco G, Brandi G, et al. Effect of vitamin A, C, and E supplementation on rectal cell proliferation in patients with colorectal adenomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992;84:47-51.

McKeown-Eyssen G, Holloway C, Jazmaji V, et al. A randomized trial of vitamins C and E in the prevention of recurrence of colorectal polyps. Cancer Res 1988;48:4701-5.

Heinonen OP, Albanes D, Virtamo J, et al. Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:440-6.

Varis K, Taylor PR, Sipponen P, et al. Gastric cancer and premalignant lesions in atrophic gastritis: a controlled trial on the effect of supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene. The Helsinki Gastritis Study Group. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998;33:294-300.

Rautalahti MT, Virtamo JR, Taylor PR, et al. The effects of supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene on the incidence and mortality of carcinoma of the pancreas in a randomized, controlled trial. Cancer 1999;86:37-42.

Moyad MA, Brumfield SK, Pienta KJ. Vitamin E, alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, and prostate cancer. Semin Urol Oncol 1999;17:85-90.

Li D, Saldeen T, Mehta JL. Gamma-tocopherol decreases ox-LDL-mediated activation of nuclear factor- kappaB and apoptosis in human coronary artery endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1999;259:157-61.

Aberg F, Appelkvist EL, Broijersen A, et al. Gemfibrozil-induced decrease in serum ubiquinone and alpha- and gamma- tocopherol levels in men with combined hyperlipidaemia. Eur J Clin Invest 1998;28:235-42.

Takahashi O. Haemorrhagic toxicity of a large dose of alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-tocopherols, ubiquinone, beta-carotene, retinol acetate and L-ascorbic acid in the rat. Food Chem Toxicol 1995;33:121-8.

Mares-Perlman JA, Lyle BJ, Klein R, et al. Vitamin supplement use and incident cataracts in a population-based study. Arch Ophthalmol 2000;118:1556-63.

Briggs GB, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1998.

Hathcock JN. Metabolic mechanisms of drug-nutrient interactions. Fed Proc 1985;44:124-9.

West RJ, Lloyd JK. The effect of cholestyramine on intestinal absorption. Gut 1975;16:93-8.

Cywes C, Millar AJ. Assessment of the nutritional status of infants and children with biliary atresia. S Afr Med J 1990;77:131-5.

Elinder LS, Hadell K, Johansson J, et al. Probucol treatment decreases serum concentrations of diet-derived antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:1057-63.

Schwarz KB, Goldstein PD, Witztum JL, et al. Fat-soluble vitamin concentrations in hypercholestrolemic children treated with colestipol. Pediatrics 1980;65:243-50.

Tonstad S, Silverstein M, Aksnes L, Ose L. Low dose colestipol in adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia. Arch Dis Child 1996;74:157-60.

Becker GL. The case against mineral oil. Am J Digestive Dis 1952;19:344-8.

Clark JH, Russell GJ, Fitzgerald JF, et al. Serum beta-carotene, retinol, and alpha-tocopherol levels during mineral oil therapy for constipation. Am J Dis Child 1987;141:1210-2.

Horwitt MK. My valedictory on the differences in biological potency between RRR-alpha-tocopheryl and all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:341-2.

Neunteufl T, Priglinger U, Heher S, et al. Effects of vitamin E on chronic and acute endothelial dysfunction in smokers. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:277-83.

Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1216-22.

Masaki KH, Losonczy KG, Izmirlian G, et al. Association of vitamin E and C supplement use with cognitive function and dementia in elderly men. Neurology 2000;54:1265-72.

Socci DJ, Crandall BM, Arendash GW. Chronic antioxidant treatment improves the cognitive performance of aged rats. Brain Res 1995;693:88-94.

Yamada K, Tanaka T, Han D, et al. Protective effects of idebenone and alpha-tocopherol on beta-amyloid-(1-42)-induced learning and memory deficits in rats: implication of oxidative stress in beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in vivo. Eur J Neurosci 1999;11:83-90.

Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Denisova NA, et al. Long-term dietary strawberry, spinach, or vitamin E supplementation retards the onset of age-related neuronal signal-transduction and cognitive behavioral deficits. J Neurosci 1998;18:8047-55.

Nemeth I, Turi S, Haszon I, Bereczki C. Vitamin E alleviates the oxidative stress of erythropoietin in uremic children on hemodialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 2000;14:13-7.

Inal M, Kanbak G, Sen S, et al. Antioxidant status and lipid peroxidation in hemodialysis patients undergoing erythropoietin and erythropoietin-vitamin E combined therapy. Free Radic Res 1999;31:211-6.

Suthutvoravut U, Hathirat P, Sirichakwal P, et al. Vitamin E status, glutathione peroxidase activity and the effect of vitamin E supplementation in children with thalassemia. J Med Assoc Thai 1993;76:146-52.

Hartman TJ, Albanes D, Pietinen P, et al. The association between baseline vitamin E, selenium, and prostate cancer in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1998;7:335-40.

Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Ma J, et al. Supplemental vitamin E intake and prostate cancer risk in a large cohort of men in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1999;8:893-9.

Cristol JP, Bosc JY, Badiou S, et al. Erythropoietin and oxidative stress in haemodialysis: beneficial effects of vitamin E supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997;12:2312-7.

Zipursky A, Brown EJ, Watts J, et al. Oral vitamin E supplementation for the prevention of anemia in premature infants: a controlled trial. Pediatrics 1987;79:61-8.

Ferns G, Williams J, Forster L, et al. Cholesterol standardized plasma vitamin E levels are reduced in patients with severe angina pectoris. Int J Exp Pathol 2000;81:57-62.

Motoyama T, Kawano H, Kugiyama K, et al. Vitamin E administration improves impairment of endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with coronary spastic angina. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32:1672-9.

Rapola JM, Virtamo J, Ripatti S, et al. Effects of alpha tocopherol and beta carotene supplements on symptoms, progression, and prognosis of angina pectoris. Heart 1998;79:454-8.

Spencer AP, Carson DS, Crouch MA. Vitamin E and coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1313-20.

Fish WH, Cohen M, Franzek D, et al. Effect of intramuscular vitamin E on mortality and intracranial hemorrhage in neonates of 1000 grams or less. Pediatrics 1990;85:578-84.

Watts JL, Milner R, Zipursky A, et al. Failure of supplementation with vitamin E to prevent bronchopulmonary dysplasia in infants less than 1,500 g birth weight. Eur Resp J 1991;4:188-90.

Hunter DJ, Manson JE, Colditz GA, et al. A prospective study of the intake of vitamins C, E, and A and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1993;329:234-40.

Rohan TE, Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, et al. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993;4:29-37.

Ernster VL, Goodson WH III, Hunt TK, et al. Vitamin E and benign breast disease: a double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Surgery 1985;97:490-4.

Meyer EC, Sommers DK, Reitz CJ, Mentis H. Vitamin E and benign breast disease. Surgery 1990;107:549-51.

London RS, Sundaram GS, Murphy L, et al. The effect of vitamin E on mammary dysplasia: a double-blind study. Obstet Gynecol 1985;65:104-6.

Leske MC, Chylack LT Jr, He Q, et al. Antioxidant vitamins and nuclear opacities: the longitudinal study of cataract. Ophthalmol 1998;105:831-6.

Seddon JM, Christen WG, Manson JE, et al. The use of vitamin supplements and the risk of cataract among US male physicians. Am J Publ Health 1994;84:788-92.

Tavani A, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Food and nutrient intake and risk of cataract. Ann Epidemiol 1996;6:41-6.

Teikari JM, Rautalahti M, Haukka J, et al. Incidence of cataract operations in Finnish male smokers unaffected by alpha tocopherol or beta carotene supplements. J Epidemiol Community Health 1998;52:468-72.

Teikari JM, Laatikainen L, Virtamo J, et al. Six-year supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene and age-related maculopathy. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1998;76:224-9.

Ludwig CU, Stoll HR, Obrist R, Obrecht JP. Prevention of cytotoxic drug induced skin ulcers with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and alpha-tocopherol. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol 1987;23:327-9.

Raju GB, Behari M, Prasad K, Ahuja GK. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of D-alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) as add-on therapy in uncontrolled epilepsy. Epilepsia 1994;35:368-72.

Ogunmekan AO, Hwang PA. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of D-alpha-tocopheryl acetate (vitamin E), as add-on therapy, for epilepsy in children. Epilepsia 1989;30:84-9.

Delanian S, Balla-Mekias S, Lefaix JL. Striking regression of chronic radiotherapy damage in a clinical trial of combined pentoxifylline and tocopherol. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:3283-90.

Delanian S. Striking regression of radiation-induced fibrosis by a combination of pentoxifylline and tocopherol. Br J Radiol 1998;71:892-4.

Tahzib M, Frank R, Gauthier B, et al. Vitamin E treatment of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: results of an open-label study. Pediatr Nephrol 1999;13:649-52.

Bukin YV, Draudin-Krylenko VA, Kuvshinov YP, et al. Decrease of ornithine decarboxylase activity in premalignant gastric mucosa and regression of small intestinal metaplasia in patients supplemented with high doses of vitamin E. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:543-6.

Dawsey SM, Wang GQ, Taylor PR, et al. Effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on the prevalence of histological dysplasia and early cancer of the esophagus and stomach: results from the Dysplasia Trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1994;3:167-72.

Wang GQ, Dawsey SM, Li JY, et al. Effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on the prevalence of histological dysplasia and early cancer of the esophagus and stomach: results from the General Population Trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1994;3:161-6.

Goldstein RK, Zillikens D, Miller K, Elsner P, Burg G. Local treatment of disseminated granuloma anulare with a vitamin E emulsion. Hautarzt 1991;42:176-8.

Eldamhougy S, Elhelw Z, Yamamah G, et al. The vitamin E status among glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficient patients and effectiveness of oral vitamin E. Int J Vita Nutr Res 1988;58:184-8.

Hafez M, Amar ES, Zedan M, et al. Improved erythrocyte survival with combined vitamin E and selenium therapy in children with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and mild chronic hemolysis. J Pediatr 1986;108:558-561.

Johnson GJ, Vatassery GT, Finkel B, Allen DW. High-dose vitamin E does not decrease the rate of chronic hemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. N Engl J Med 1983;308:1014-7.

Chan AC, Chow CK, Chiu D. Interaction of antioxidants and their implication in genetic anemia. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999;222:274-82.

Peyser CE, Folstein M, Chase GA, et al. Trial of d-alpha-tocopherol in Huntington's disease. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1771-5.

Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1997;277:1380-6.

Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, et al. Effect of micronutrient status on natural killer cell immune function in healthy free-living subjects aged >/=90 y. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:590-8.

Pallast EG, Schouten EG, de Waart FG, et al. Effect of 50- and 100-mg vitamin E supplements on cellular immune function in noninstitutionalized elderly persons. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:1273-81.

de la Fuente M, Ferrandez MD, Burgos MS, et al. Immune function in aged women is improved by ingestion of vitamins C and E. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1998;76:373-80.

Buzina-Suboticanec K, Buzina R, Stavljenic A, et al. Aging, nutritional status and immune response. Int J Vita Nutr Res 1998;68:133-41.

Kessopoulou E, Powers HJ, Sharma KK, et al. A double-blind, randomized, placebo, cross-over, controlled trial using the antioxidant vitamin E to treat reactive oxygen species associated male infertility. Fertil Steril 1995;64:825-31.

Suleiman SA, Ali ME, Zaki ZM, et al. Lipid peroxidation and human sperm motility: protective role of vitamin E. J Androl 1996;17:530-7.

Rolf C, Cooper TG, Yeung CH, Nieschlag E. Antioxidant treatment of patients with asthenozoospermia or moderate oligoasthenozoospermia with high-dose vitamin C and vitamin E: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Hum Reprod 1999;14:1028-33.

Yau TM, Weisel RD, Mickle DA, et al. Vitamin E for coronary bypass operations. A prospective, double-blind, randomized trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;108:302-10.

Westhuyzen J, Cochrane AD, Tesar PJ, et al. Effect of preoperative supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and ascorbic acid on myocardial injury in patients undergoing cardiac operations. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;113:942-8.

Sisto T, Paajanen H, Metsa-Ketela T, et al. Pretreatment with antioxidants and allopurinol diminishes cardiac onset events in coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:1519-23.

Roca AO, Jarjoura D, Blend D, et al. Dialysis leg cramps. Efficacy of quinine versus vitamin E. ASAIO J 1992;38:M481-5.

Connolly PS, Shirley EA, Wasson JH, Nierenberg DW. Treatment of nocturnal leg cramps. A crossover trial of quinine vs vitamin E. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1877-80.

Fenichel GM, Brooke MH, Griggs RC, et al. Clinical investigation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: penicillamine and vitamin E. Muscle Nerve 1988;11:1164-8.

Orndahl G, Grimby G, Grimby A, et al. Functional deterioration and selenium-vitamin E treatment in myotonic dystrophy. A placebo-controlled study. J Intern Med 1994;235:205-10.

Watanabe H, Kakihana M, Ohtsuka S, Sugishita Y. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of supplemental vitamin E on attenuation of the development of nitrate tolerance. Circulation 1997;96:2545-50.

Benner SE, Winn RJ, Lippman SM, et al. Regression of oral leukoplakia with alpha-tocopherol: a community clinical oncology program chemoprevention study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:44-7.

The Parkinson Study Group. Effects of tocopherol and deprenyl on the progression of disability in early Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 1993;328:176-83.

Kieburtz K, McDermott M, Como P, et al. The effect of deprenyl and tocopherol on cognitive performance in early untreated Parkinson's disease. Parkinson Study Group. Neurology 1994;44:1756-9.

Parkinson Study Group. Impact of deprenyl and tocopherol treatment on Parkinson's disease in DATATOP patients requiring levodopa. Ann Neurol 1996;39:37-45.

de Rijk MC, Breteler MM, den Breeijen JH, et al. Dietary antioxidants and Parkinson disease. The Rotterdam Study. Arch Neurol 1997;54:762-5.

Dreher F, Gabard B, Schwindt DA, Maibach HI. Topical melatonin in combination with vitamins E and C protects skin from ultraviolet-induced erythema: a human study in vivo. Br J Dermatol 1998;139:332-9.

Dreher F, Denig N, Gabard B, et al. Effect of topical antioxidants on UV-induced erythema formation when administered after exposure. Dermatol 1999;198:52-5.

Fuchs J, Kern H. Modulation of UV-light-induced skin inflammation by D-alpha-tocopherol and L-ascorbic acid: a clinical study using solar simulated radiation. Free Radic Biol Med 1998;25:1006-12.

Eberlein-Konig B, Placzek M, Przybilla B. Protective effect against sunburn of combined systemic ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and d-alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E). J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:45-8.

Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ, Oosthuisen MM. Antioxidants in the treatment of severe pre-eclampsia: an explanatory randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:689-96.

London RS, Murphy L, Kitlowski KE, Reynolds MA. Efficacy of alpha-tocopherol in the treatment of the premenstrual syndrome. J Reprod Med 1987;32:400-4.

London RS, Sundaram GS, Murphy L, Goldstein PJ. The effect of alpha-tocopherol on premenstrual symptomatology: a double-blind study. J Am Coll Nutr 1983;2:115-22.

Baumann LS, Spencer JS. The effects of topical vitamin E on the cosmetic appearance of scars. Dermatol Surg 1999;25:311-5.

Jenkins M, Alexander JW, MacMillan BG, et al. Failure of topical steroids and vitamin E to reduce postoperative scar formation following reconstructive surgery. J Burn Care Rehabil 1986;7:309-12.

Edmonds SE, Winyard PG, Guo R, et al. Putative analgesic activity of repeated oral doses of vitamin E in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Results of a prospective placebo controlled double blind trial. Ann Rheum Dis 1997;56:649-55.

Tutuncu NB, Bayraktar M, Varli K. Reversal of defective nerve conduction with vitamin E supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a preliminary study. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1915-8.

Bursell SE, Clermont AC, Aiello LP, et al. High-dose vitamin E supplementation normalizes retinal blood flow and creatinine clearance in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22:1245-51.

Paolisso G, D'Amore A, Giugliano D, et al. Pharmacologic doses of vitamin E improve insulin action in healthy subjects and non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:650-6.

van Rooij J, Schwartzenberg SG, Mulder PG, Baarsma SG. Oral vitamins C and E as additional treatment in patients with acute anterior uveitis: a randomised double masked study in 145 patients. Br J Ophthalmol 1999;83:1277-82.

Tornwall ME, Virtamo J, Haukka JK, et al. The effect of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on symptoms and progression of intermittent claudication in a controlled trial. Atherosclerosis 1999;147:193-7.

Liede KE, Haukka JK, Saxen LM, Heinonen OP. Increased tendency towards gingival bleeding caused by joint effect of alpha-tocopherol supplementation and acetylsalicylic acid. Ann Med 1998;30:542-6.

Mares-Perlman JA, Brady WE, Klein BE, et al. Serum carotenoids and tocopherols and severity of nuclear and cortical opacities. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1995;36:276-88.

Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Creagan ET, et al. High-dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind comparison. N Engl J Med 1985;312:137-41.

Creagan ET, Moertel CG, O'Fallon JR, et al. Failure of high-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer. A controlled trial. N Engl J Med 1979;301:687-90.

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: https://www.nap.edu/books/0309069351/html/.

Sperduto RD, Hu TS, Milton RC, et al. The Linxian cataract studies. Two nutrition intervention trials. Arch Ophthalmol 1993;111:1246-53.

Palumbo G, Avanzini F, Alli C, et al. Effects of vitamin E on clinic and ambulatory blood pressure in treated hypertensive patients. Collaborative Group of the Primary Prevention Project (PPP)--Hypertension study. Am J Hypertens 2000;13:564-7.

Brand C, Snaddon J, Bailey M, Cicuttini F. Vitamin E is ineffective for symptomatic relief of knee osteoarthritis: a six month double blind, randomised, placebo controlled study. Ann Rheum Dis 2001;60:946-9.

Fogarty A, Lewis S, Weiss S, Britton J. Dietary vitamin E, IgE concentrations, and atopy. Lancet 2000;356:1573-4.

Stordy BJ. Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:323S-6S.

McAlindon TE, Jacques P, Zhang Y, et al. Do antioxidant micronutrients protect against the development and progression of knee osteoarthritis? Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:648-56.

Blumenthal RD, Lew W, Reising A, et al. Antioxidant vitamins reduce normal tissue toxicity induced by radio-immunotherapy. Int J Cancer 2000;86:276-80.

Troisi RJ, Willett WC, Weiss ST, et al. A prospective study of diet and adult-onset asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1401-8.

Keller KL, Fenske NA. Uses of vitamins A, C, and E and related compounds in dermatology: A review. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;39:611-25.

Kligman AM. Topical treatments for photoaged skin. Separating the reality from the hype. Postgrad Med 1997;102:115-26.

Caspi O, Greenfield RH, Gurgevich S. Case report in integrative medicine: a 24-year-old male with medically intractable seizures. Int Med 1998;1:173-6.

Roodenburg AJ, Leenen R, van het Hof KH, et al. Amount of fat in the diet affects bioavailability of lutein esters but not of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and vitamin E in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1187-93.

Vitamin E and heart disease. Pharmacist's Letter / Prescriber's Letter 2000;16(3):160307.

Iuliano L, Micheletta F, Maranghi M, et al. Bioavailability of vitamin E as function of food intake in healthy subjects: effects on plasma peroxide-scavenging activity and cholesterol-oxidation products. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:E34-7.

Girodon F, Galan P, Monget AL, et al. Impact of trace elements and vitamin supplementation on immunity and infections in institutionalized elderly patients: a randomized, controlled trial. MIN. VIT. AOX. geriatric network. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:748-54.

Bendich A. The potential for dietary supplements to reduce premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms. J Am Coll Nutrition 2000;19:3-12.

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002. Available at: www.nap.edu/books/0309072794/html/.

Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss. AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1417-36.

Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no. 9. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1439-52.

Todd S, Woodward M, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Bolton-Smith C. Dietary antioxidant vitamins and fiber in the etiology of cardiovascular disease and all-causes mortality: results from the Scottish Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:1073-80.

Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1583-93.

Yochum LA, Folsom AR, Kushi LH. Intake of antioxidant vitamins and risk of death from stroke in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:476-83..

Knekt P, Reunanen A, Jarvinen R, et al. Antioxidant vitamin intake and coronary mortality in a longitudinal population study. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:1180-9.

Keli SO, Hertog MG, Feskens EJ, Kromhout D. Dietary flavonoids, antioxidant vitamins, and incidence of stroke: the Zutphen study. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:637-42.

Watkins ML, Erickson JD, Thun MJ, et al. Multivitamin use and mortality in a large prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:149-62..

Kumar B, Cole WC, Prasad KN. Alpha tocopheryl succinate, retinoic acid and polar carotenoids enhanced the growth-inhibitory effect of a cholesterol-lowering drug on immortalized and transformed nerve cells in culture. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:628-36.

Girodon F, Lombard M, Galan P, et al. Effect of micronutrient supplementation on infection in institutionalized elderly subjects: a controlled trial. Ann Nutr Metab 1997;41:98-107.

Hak AE, Stampfer MJ, Campos H, et al. Plasma carotenoids and tocopherols and risk of myocardial infarction in a low-risk population of US male physicians. Circulation 2003;108:802-7..

McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Booth SL, et al. Effects of orlistat on fat-soluble vitamins in obese adolescents. Pharmacotherapy 2002;22:814-22..

Duffield-Lillico AJ, Reid ME, et al. Baseline characteristics and the effect of selenium supplementation on cancer incidence in a randomized clinical trial: a summary report of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:630-9..

Mayne ST, Risch HA, Dubrow R, et al. Nutrient intake and risk of subtypes of esophageal and gastric cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001;10:1055-62..

Jacobs EJ, Henion AK, Briggs PJ, et al. Vitamin C and vitamin E supplement use and bladder cancer mortality in a large cohort of US men and women. Am J Epidemiol 2002;156:1002-10..

Luchsinger JA, Tang M, Shea S, Mayeux R. Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003;60:203-8..

Kim MK, Ahn SH, Lee-Kim. Relationship of serum alpha-tocopherol, carotenoids and retinol with the risk of breast cancer. Nutr Res 2001;21:797-809.

Helzlsouer KJ, Huang HY, Alberg AJ, et al. Association between alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, selenium, and subsequent prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:2018-23..

Engler MM, Engler MB, Malloy MJ, et al. Antioxidant Vitamins C and E Improve Endothelial Function in Children With Hyperlipidemia: Endothelial Assessment of Risk from Lipids in Youth (EARLY) Trial. Circulation 2003;108:1059-63..

Ziaei S, Faghihzadeh S, Sohrabvand F, et al. A randomised placebo-controlled trial to determine the effect of vitamin E in treatment of primary dysmenorrhoea. BJOG 2001;108:1181-3..

Pathak A, Roth P, Piscitelli J, Johnson L. Effects of vitamin E supplementation during erythropoietin treatment of the anaemia of prematurity. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003;88:F324-8.

Delanian S, Porcher R, Balla-Mekias S, Lefaix JL. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of combined pentoxifylline and tocopherol for regression of superficial radiation-induced fibrosis. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:2545-50..

Liu M, Wallmon A, Olsson-Mortlock C, et al. Mixed tocopherols inhibit platelet aggregation in humans: potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:700-6.

Vivekananthan DP, Penn MS, Sapp SK, et al. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2003;361:2017-23..

Pace A, Savarese A, Picardo M, et al. Neuroprotective effect of vitamin E supplementation in patients treated with cisplatin chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 2003;21:927-31..

Traber MG, Schiano TD, Steephen AC, et al. Efficacy of water-soluble vitamin E in the treatment of vitamin E malabsorption in short-bowel syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;59:1270-4..

Sokol RJ, Johnson KE, Karrer FM, et al. Improvement of cyclosporin absorption in children after liver transplantation by means of water-soluble vitamin E. Lancet 1991;338:212-4..

Fryer MJ. Vitamin E as a protective antioxidant in progressive renal failure. Nephrology 2000;5:1-7.

Salonen RM, Nyyssonen K, Kaikkonen J, et al. Six-year effect of combined vitamin C and E supplementation on atherosclerotic progression: the Antioxidant Supplementation in Atherosclerosis Prevention (ASAP) Study. Circulation 2003;107:947-53..

Hathcock JN, Hattan DG, Jenkins MY, et al. Evaluation of vitamin A toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 1990;52:183-202..

DiPalma JR, Ritchie DM. Vitamin Toxicity. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1977;17:133-48..

Bauernfeind JC, Newmark H, Brin M. Vitamins A and E nutrition via intramuscular or oral route. Am J Clin Nutr 1974;27:234-53..

Bendich A, Langseth L. Safety of vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:358-71..

Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Underwood BA, et al. Vitamins A, E and carotene: effects of supplementation on their plasma levels. Am J Clin Nutr 1983;38:559-66..

Schade RWB, van't Laar A, Majoor CLH, Jansen AP. A comparative study of the effects of cholestyramine and neomycin in the treatment of type II hyperlipoproteinemia. Acta Med Scand 1976;199:175-80..

Glueck CJ, Tsang RC, Fallat RW, Scheel D. Plasma vitamin A and E levels in children with familial type II hyperlipoproteinemia during therapy with diet and cholestyramine resin. Pediatrics 1974;54:51-5..

Davidson MH, Hauptman J, DiGirolamo M, et al. Weight control and risk factor reduction in obese subjects treated for 2 years with orlistat. JAMA 1999;281:235-42.

Sjostrom L, Rissanen A, Andersen T, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for weight loss and prevention of weight regain in obese patients. Lancet 1998;352:167-73..

Graat JM, Schouten EG, Kok FJ. Effect of daily vitamin E and multivitamin-mineral supplementation on acute respiratory tract infections in elderly persons: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:715-21.

Sahyoun NR, Jacques PF, Russell RM. Carotenoids, vitamins C and E, and mortality in an elderly population. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144:501-11..

Kritchevsky SB, Shimakawa T, Tell GS, et al. Dietary antioxidants and carotid artery wall thickness. The ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Circulation 1995;92:2142-50..

Hodis HN, Mack WJ, LaBree L, et al. Serial coronary angiographic evidence that antioxidant vitamin intake reduces progression of coronary artery atherosclerosis. JAMA 1995;273:1849-54..

Negri E, Franceschi S, Bosetti C, et al. Selected micronutrients and oral and pharyngeal cancer. Int J Cancer 2000;86:122-7..

Chylack LT, Brown NP, Bron A, et al. The Roche European American Cataract Trial (REACT): A randomized clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of an oral antioxidant micronutrient mixture to slow progression of age-related cataract. Ophthalmic Epidemiol 2002;9:49-80..

Waters DD, Alderman EL, Hsia J, et al. Effects of hormone replacement therapy and antioxidant vitamin supplements on coronary atherosclerosis in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:2432-40..

Tardif JC. Probucol and multivitamins in the prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 1997;337:365-372..

Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Epidemiology 1992;3:194-202..

Karagas MR, Greenberg ER, Nierenberg D, et al. Risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin in relation to plasma selenium, alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene, and retinol: a nested case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1997;6:25-9..

Wan XS, Zhou Z, Kennedy AR, Kopelovich L. In vitro evaluation of chemopreventive agents using cultured human prostate epithelial cells. Oncol Rep 2003;10:2009-14.

Stein JH, Carlsson CM, Papcke-Benson K, et al. The effects of lipid-lowering and antioxidant vitamin therapies on flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery in older adults with hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:1806-13..

Carlsson CM, Papcke-Benson K, Carnes M, et al. Health-related quality of life and long-term therapy with pravastatin and tocopherol (vitamin E) in older adults. Drugs Aging 2002;19:793-805. .

Virtamo J, Pietinen P, Huttunen JK, et al. Incidence of cancer and mortality following alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation: a postintervention follow-up. JAMA 2003;290:476-85..

Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. Potential public health impact of age-related eye disease study results: AREDS report no. 11. Arch Ophthalmol 2003;121:1621-4.

Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS, et al. Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 2004;61:82-8.

Klatte ET, Scharre DW, Nagaraja HN, et al. Combination therapy of donepezil and vitamin E in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2003;17:113-6.

Dowd P, Zheng ZB. On the mechanism of the anticlotting action of vitamin E quinone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995;92:8171-5.

Cheung MC, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low HDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1320-6.

Giugliano D, Marfella R. Antioxidants and nitrate tolerance (letter). Circulation 1998;98:1350-1.

Melhorn DK, Gross S. Relationships between iron-dextran and vitamin E in iron deficiency anemia in children. J Lab Clin Med 1969;74:789-802.

Bredie SJ, de Bruin TW, Demacker PN, et al. Comparison of gemfibrozil versus simvastatin in familial combined hyperlipidemia and effects on apolipoprotein-B-containing lipoproteins, low-density lipoprotein subfraction profile, and low-density lipoprotein oxidizability. Am J Cardiol 1995;75:348-53.

Ogunmekan AO. Relationship between age and vitamin E level in epileptic children and normal children. Am J Clin Nutr 1979;32:2269-71.

Kataoka K, Kanamori N, Oishi M, et al. Vitamin E status in pediatric patients receiving antiepileptic drugs. Devel Pharmacol Ther 1989;14:96-101.

Ogunmekan AO. Plasma vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) levels in normal children and in epileptic children with and without anticonvulsant drug therapy. Trop Geog Med 1985;37:175-7.

Higashi A, Ikeda T, Matsukura M, Matsuda I. Serum zinc and vitamin E concentrations in handicapped children treated with anticonvulsants. Devel Pharmacol Ther 1982;5:109-13.

Higashi A, Tamari H, Ikeda T, et al. Serum vitamin E concentration in patients with severe multiple handicaps treated with anticonvulsants. Pediatr Pharmacol 1980;1:129-34.

Schrogie JJ. Coagulopathy and fat-soluble vitamins (letter). JAMA 1975;232:19.

Steiner M, Glantz M, Lekos A. Vitamin E plus aspirin compared with aspirin alone in patients with transient ischemic attacks. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62:1381s-4s.

Celestini A, Pulcinelli FM, Pignatelli P, et al. Vitamin E potentiates the antiplatelet activity of aspirin in collagen-stimulated platelets. Haematologica 2002;87:420-6.

Stampfer MJ, Jakubowski JA, Faigel D, et al. Vitamin E supplementation effect on human platelet function, arachidonic acid metabolism, and plasma prostacyclin levels. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;47:700-6.

Jandak J, Steiner M, Richardson PD. Alpha-tocopherol, an effective inhibitor of platelet adhesion. Blood 1989;73:141-9.

Freedman JE, Farhat JH, Loscalzo J, Keaney JF. Alpha-tocopherol inhibits aggregation of human platelets by a protein kinase C-dependent mechanism. Circulation 1996;94:2434-40.

Steiner M. Vitamin E, a modifier of platelet function: rationale and use in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease. Nutr Rev 1999;57:306-9.

Yoshida H, Ishikawa T, Ayaori M, et al. Beneficial effect of gemfibrozil on the chemical composition and oxidative susceptibility of low density lipoprotein: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Atherosclerosis 1998;139:179-87.

Weijl NI, Hopman GD, Wipkink-Bakker A, et al. Cisplatin combination chemotherapy induces a fall in plasma antioxidants of cancer patients. Ann Oncol 1998;9:1331-7.

Ladas EJ, Jacobson JS, Kennedy DD, et al. Antioxidants and cancer therapy: a systematic review. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:517-28.

Richer S, Stiles W, Statkute L, et al. Double-masked, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of lutein and antioxidant supplementation in the intervention of atrophic age-related macular degermation: the Veterans LAST study (Lutein Antioxidant Supplement Trial). Optometry 2004;75:216-30.

Kennedy DD, Tucker KL, Ladas ED, et al. Low antioxidant vitamin intakes are associated with increases in adverse effects of chemotherapy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:1029-36.

Brodkin RH, Bleiberg J. Sensitivity to topically applied vitamin E. Arch Dermatol 1965;92:76-7.

Booth SL, Golly I, Sacheck JM, et al. Effect of vitamin E supplementation on vitamin K status in adults with normal coagulation status. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:143-8.

Meydani SN, Leka LS, Fine BC, et al. Vitamin E and respiratory tract infections in elderly nursing home residents. JAMA 2004;292:828-36.

Kris-Etherton PM, Lichtenstein AH, Howard BV, et al. AHA Science Advisory: Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2004;110:637-41.

Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2004;364:1219-28.

Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, et al. Meta-analysis: High-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 2005;142:60520-53.

Eidelman RS, Hollar D, Hebert PR, et al. Randomized trials of vitamin E in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:1552-6.

Shekelle PG, Morton SC, Jungvig LK, et al. Effect of supplemental vitamin E for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. J Gen Intern Med 2004;19:380-9.

Jiang Q, Christen S, Shigenaga MK, Ames BN. gamma-tocopherol, the major form of vitamin E in the US diet, deserves more attention. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:714-22.

Abudu N, Miller JJ, Attaelmannan M, Levinson SS. Vitamins in human arteriosclerosis with emphasis on vitamin C and vitamin E. Clin Chim Acta 2004;339:11-25.

Huang HY, Appel LJ. Supplementation of diets with alpha-tocopherol reduces serum concentrations of gamma- and delta-tocopherol in humans. J Nutr 2003;133:3137-40.

Vega-Lopez S, Kaul N, Devaraj S, et al. Supplementation with omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and all-rac alpha-tocopherol alone and in combination failed to exert an anti-inflammatory effect in human volunteers. Metabolism 2004;53:236-40.

Dagnelie PC, Schuurman AG, Goldbohm RA, Van den Brandt PA. Diet, anthropometric measures and prostate cancer risk: a review of prospective cohort and intervention studies. BJU Int 2004;93:1139-50.

Rodriguez C, Jacobs EJ, Mondul AM, et al. Vitamin E supplements and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13:378-82.

Goodman GE, Schaffer S, Omenn GS, et al. The association between lung and prostate cancer risk, and serum micronutrients: results and lessons learned from beta-carotene and retinol efficacy trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003;12:518-26.

Thompson TA, Wilding G. Androgen antagonist activity by the antioxidant moiety of vitamin E, 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethyl-6-chromanol in human prostate carcinoma cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2003;2:797-803.

Hartman TJ, Dorgan JF, Woodson K, et al. Effects of long-term alpha-tocopherol supplementation on serum hormones in older men. Prostate 2001;46:33-8.

Cook NR, Le IM, Manson JE, et al. Effects of beta-carotene supplementation on cancer incidence by baseline characteristics in the Physicians' Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2000;11:617-26.

Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, et al. HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial Investigators. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;293:1338-47.

Bairati I, Meyer F, Gelinas M, et al. A randomized trial of antioxidant vitamins to prevent second primary cancers in head and neck cancer patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:481-8.

Petersen RC, Thomas RG, Grundman M, et al. Vitamin E and donepezil for the treatment of mild cognitive impairment. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2379-88.

Wluka AE, Stuckey S, Brand C, Cicuttini FM. Supplementary vitamin E does not affect the loss of cartilage volume in knee osteoarthritis: A 2 year double blind randomized placebo controlled study. J Rheumatol 2002;29:2585-91.

Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: The Women's Health Study: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;294:56-65.

Kraemer K, Koch W, Hoppe PP. Is all-rac-alpha-tocopherol different from RRR-alpha-tocopherol regarding cardiovascular efficacy? A meta-analysis of clinical trials. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2004;1031:435-8.

Huang HY, Appel LJ, Croft KD, et al. Effects of vitamin C and vitamin E on in vivo lipid peroxidation: results of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:549-55.

Gomez-Perez FJ, Valles-Sanchez VE, Lopez-Alvarenga JC, et al. Vitamin E modifies neither fructosamine nor HbA1c levels in poorly controlled diabetes. Rev Invest Clin 1996;48:421-4. .

Jain SK, McVie R, Jaramillo JJ, et al. Effect of modest vitamin E supplementation on blood glycated hemoglobin and triglyceride levels and red cell indices in type I diabetic patients. J Am Coll Nutr 1996;15:458-61. .

Kaempf-Rotzoll DE, Traber MG, Arai H. Vitamin E and transfer proteins. Curr Opin Lipidol 2003;14:249-54..

Landes N, Pfluger P, Kluth D, et al. Vitamin E activates gene expression via the pregnane X receptor. Biochem Pharmacol 2003;65:269-73. .

Brigelius-Flohe R. Vitamin E and drug metabolism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;305:737-40.

Wagner KH, Kamal-Eldin A, Elmadfa I. Gamma-tocopherol--an underestimated vitamin? Ann Nutr Metab 2004;48:169-88..

Blatt DH, Pryor WA, Mata JE, Rodriguez-Proteau R. Re-evaluation of the relative potency of synthetic and natural alpha-tocopherol: experimental and clinical observations. J Nutr Biochem 2004;15:380-95..

Jiang Q, Wong J, Fyrst H, et al. gamma-Tocopherol or combinations of vitamin E forms induce cell death in human prostate cancer cells by interrupting sphingolipid synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004;101:17825-30..

Schneider C. Chemistry and biology of vitamin E. Mol Nutr Food Res 2005;49:7-30..

Brigelius-Flohe R, Kelly FJ, Salonen JT, et al. The European perspective on vitamin E: current knowledge and future research. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76:703-16..

Montonen J, Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A. Dietary antioxidant intake and risk of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:362-6.

Adams LA, Angulo P. Vitamins E and C for the treatment of NASH: duplication of results but lack of demonstration of efficacy. Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:2348-50.

Cesari M, Pahor M, Bartali B, et al. Antioxidants and physical performance in elderly persons: the Invecchiare in Chianti (InCHIANTI) study. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:289-94.

Block G, Jensen C, Dietrich M, et al. Plasma C-reactive protein concentrations in active and passive smokers: influence of antioxidant supplementation. J Am Coll Nutr 2004;23:141-7.

Prasad KN. Rationale for using high-dose multiple dietary antioxidants as an adjunct to radiation therapy and chemotherapy. J Nutr 2004;134:3182S-3S.

Conklin KA. Cancer chemotherapy and antioxidants. J Nutr 2004;134:3201S-3204S.

Knekt P, Ritz J, Pereira MA, et al. Antioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease risk: a pooled analysis of 9 cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1508-20.

Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, et al. The SU.VI.MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:2335-42.

Kirsh VA, Hayes RB, Mayne ST, et al. Supplemental and dietary vitamin E, beta-carotene, and vitamin C intakes and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:245-54.

Dagnelie PC, Schuurman AG, Goldbohm RA, Van den Brandt PA. Diet, anthropometric measures and prostate cancer risk: a review of prospective cohort and intervention studies. BJU Int 2004;93:1139-50.

Meyer F, Galan P, Douville P, et al. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation and prostate cancer prevention in the SU.VI.MAX trial. Int J Cancer 2005;116:182-6.

Ziaei S, Zakeri M, Kazemnejad A. A randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in the treatment of primary dysmenorrhoea. BJOG 2005;112:466-9.

You WC, Brown LM, Zhang L, et al. Randomized double-blind factorial trial of three treatments to reduce the prevalence of precancerous gastric lesions. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:974-83.

Schurks M, Glynn RJ, Rist PM, et al. Effects of vitamin E on stroke subtypes: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 2010;341: c5702. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c5702.

Aberg F, Appelkvist EL, Broijersen A, et al. Gemfibrozil-induced decrease in serum ubiquinone and alpha- and gamma-tocopherol levels in men with combined hyperlipidaemia. Eur J Clin Invest 1998;28:235-42.

Devereux G, Turner SW, Craig LC, et al. Low maternal vitamin E intake during pregnancy is associated with asthma in 5-year-old children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:499-507.

Kompauer I, Heinrich J, Wolfram G, Linseisen J. Association of carotenoids, tocopherols, and vitamin C in plasma with allergic rhinitis and allergic sensitization in adults. Public Health Nutr 2006;9:472-9.

Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, et al. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007;297:842-57.

Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, et al. Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:754-64.

Lippmann SM, Klein EA, Goodman PJ, et al. Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the selenium and vitamin E cancer prevention trial (SELECT). JAMA 2009;301:39-51.

Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate total cancer in men: the physicians' health study II randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2009;301:52-62.

Hayden KM, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Wengreen HJ, et al; Cache County Investigators. Risk of mortality with vitamin E supplements: the Cache County study. Am L Med 2007;120:180-4.

Smedts HP, de Vries JH, Rakhshandehroo M, et al. High maternal vitamin E intake by diet or supplements is associated with congenital heart defects in the offspring. BJOG 2009;116:416-23.

Sanyal AJ, Chalasani N, Kowdley KV, et al. Pioglitazone, vitamin E, or placebo for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. N Engl J Med 2010;362:1675-85.

Klein EA, Thompson IM Jr, Tangen CM, et al. Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 2011;306:1549-56.

Dysken MW, Sano M, Asthana S, et al. Effect of vitamin E and memantine on functional decline in Alzheimer disease: the TEAM-AD VA cooperative randomized trial. JAMA 2014;311:33-44.

Galasko D. R., Peskind E., Clark C. M., Quinn J. F., Ringman J. M., Jicha G. A., Cotman C., Cottrell B., Montine T. J., Thomas R. G., Aisen P. Antioxidants for Alzheimer disease: a randomized clinical trial with cerebrospinal fluid biomarker measures. Arch Neurol 2012;69(7):836-841.

Monsen ER. Dietary reference intakes for the antioxidant nutrients: vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids. J Am Diet Assoc. 2000;100(6):637-40.

Rosenbaum, C. C., O'Mathuna, D. P., Chavez, M., and Shields, K. Antioxidants and antiinflammatory dietary supplements for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Altern.Ther.Health Med. 2010;16(2):32-40.

Jacobson, J. S., Begg, M. D., Wang, L. W., Wang, Q., Agarwal, M., Norkus, E., Singh, V. N., Young, T. L., Yang, D., and Santella, R. M. Effects of a 6-month vitamin intervention on DNA damage in heavy smokers. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9(12):1303-1311.

You, W. C., Chang, Y. S., Heinrich, J., Ma, J. L., Liu, W. D., Zhang, L., Brown, L. M., Yang, C. S., Gail, M. H., Fraumeni, J. F., Jr., and Xu, G. W. An intervention trial to inhibit the progression of precancerous gastric lesions: compliance, serum micronutrients and S-allyl cysteine levels, and toxicity. Eur.J.Cancer Prev. 2001;10(3):257-263.

Malila, N., Virtamo, J., Virtanen, M., Pietinen, P., Albanes, D., and Teppo, L. Dietary and serum alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene and retinol, and risk for colorectal cancer in male smokers. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2002;56(7):615-621.

Schmidt, M. C., Askew, E. W., Roberts, D. E., Prior, R. L., Ensign, W. Y., Jr., and Hesslink, R. E., Jr. Oxidative stress in humans training in a cold, moderate altitude environment and their response to a phytochemical antioxidant supplement. Wilderness.Environ.Med. 2002;13(2):94-105.

No author. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 7-6-2002;360(9326):23-33.

Malila, N., Taylor, P. R., Virtanen, M. J., Korhonen, P., Huttunen, J. K., Albanes, D., and Virtamo, J. Effects of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on gastric cancer incidence in male smokers (ATBC Study, Finland). Cancer Causes Control 2002;13(7):617-623.

Prince, M. I., Mitchison, H. C., Ashley, D., Burke, D. A., Edwards, N., Bramble, M. G., James, O. F., and Jones, D. E. Oral antioxidant supplementation for fatigue associated with primary biliary cirrhosis: results of a multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther. 2003;17(1):137-143.

Zhu, S., Mason, J., Shi, Y., Hu, Y., Li, R., Wahg, M., Zhou, Y., Jin, G., Xie, Y., Wu, G., Xia, D., Qian, Z., Sohg, H., Zhang, L., Russell, R., and Xiao, S. The effect of folic acid on the development of stomach and other gastrointestinal cancers. Chin Med.J.(Engl.) 2003;116(1):15-19.

Chandra, R. K. Effect of vitamin and trace-element supplementation on immune responses and infection in elderly subjects. Lancet 11-7-1992;340(8828):1124-1127. [RETRACTED].

Tornwall, M. E., Virtamo, J., Korhonen, P. A., Virtanen, M. J., Albanes, D., and Huttunen, J. K. Postintervention effect of alpha tocopherol and beta carotene on different strokes: a 6-year follow-up of the Alpha Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Stroke 2004;35(8):1908-1913.

Goodman, G. E., Thornquist, M. D., Balmes, J., Cullen, M. R., Meyskens, F. L., Jr., Omenn, G. S., Valanis, B., and Williams, J. H., Jr. The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year follow-up after stopping beta-carotene and retinol supplements. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 12-1-2004;96(23):1743-1750.

Gritz, D. C., Srinivasan, M., Smith, S. D., Kim, U., Lietman, T. M., Wilkins, J. H., Priyadharshini, B., John, R. K., Aravind, S., Prajna, N. V., Duraisami, Thulasiraj R., and Whitcher, J. P. The Antioxidants in Prevention of Cataracts Study: effects of antioxidant supplements on cataract progression in South India. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(7):847-851.

Coulter, I. D., Hardy, M. L., Morton, S. C., Hilton, L. G., Tu, W., Valentine, D., and Shekelle, P. G. Antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin e for the prevention and treatment of cancer. J Gen.Intern Med 2006;21(7):735-744.

Huang, H. Y., Caballero, B., Chang, S., Alberg, A. J., Semba, R. D., Schneyer, C. R., Wilson, R. F., Cheng, T. Y., Vassy, J., Prokopowicz, G., Barnes, G. J., and Bass, E. B. The efficacy and safety of multivitamin and mineral supplement use to prevent cancer and chronic disease in adults: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health state-of-the-science conference. Ann.Intern.Med. 9-5-2006;145(5):372-385.

Kamangar, F., Qiao, Y. L., Yu, B., Sun, X. D., Abnet, C. C., Fan, J. H., Mark, S. D., Zhao, P., Dawsey, S. M., and Taylor, P. R. Lung cancer chemoprevention: a randomized, double-blind trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15(8):1562-1564.

Plummer, M., Vivas, J., Lopez, G., Bravo, J. C., Peraza, S., Carillo, E., Cano, E., Castro, D., Andrade, O., Sanchez, V., Garcia, R., Buiatti, E., Aebischer, C., Franceschi, S., Oliver, W., and Munoz, N. Chemoprevention of precancerous gastric lesions with antioxidant vitamin supplementation: a randomized trial in a high-risk population. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 1-17-2007;99(2):137-146.

Liu, B. A., McGeer, A., McArthur, M. A., Simor, A. E., Aghdassi, E., Davis, L., and Allard, J. P. Effect of multivitamin and mineral supplementation on episodes of infection in nursing home residents: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J.Am.Geriatr.Soc. 2007;55(1):35-42.

Kubo, A. and Corley, D. A. Meta-analysis of antioxidant intake and the risk of esophageal and gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. Am.J.Gastroenterol. 2007;102(10):2323-2330.

Cook, N. R., Albert, C. M., Gaziano, J. M., Zaharris, E., MacFadyen, J., Danielson, E., Buring, J. E., and Manson, J. E. A randomized factorial trial of vitamins C and E and beta carotene in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in women: results from the Women's Antioxidant Cardiovascular Study. Arch.Intern.Med. 8-13-2007;167(15):1610-1618.

Grieger, J. A., Nowson, C. A., Jarman, H. F., Malon, R., and Ackland, L. M. Multivitamin supplementation improves nutritional status and bone quality in aged care residents. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2009;63(4):558-565.

Christen, W. G., Glynn, R. J., Chew, E. Y., and Buring, J. E. Vitamin E and age-related cataract in a randomized trial of women. Ophthalmology 2008;115(5):822-829.

Evans, J. R. and Henshaw, K. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for preventing age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(1):CD000253.

Gao, J., Gao, X., Li, W., Zhu, Y., and Thompson, P. J. Observational studies on the effect of dietary antioxidants on asthma: a meta-analysis. Respirology. 2008;13(4):528-536.

Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Gluud, L. L., Simonetti, R. G., and Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of mortality in healthy participants and patients with various diseases. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2008;(2):CD007176.

Sesso, H. D., Buring, J. E., Christen, W. G., Kurth, T., Belanger, C., MacFadyen, J., Bubes, V., Manson, J. E., Glynn, R. J., and Gaziano, J. M. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 11-12-2008;300(18):2123-2133.

Lin, J., Cook, N. R., Albert, C., Zaharris, E., Gaziano, J. M., Van, Denburgh M., Buring, J. E., and Manson, J. E. Vitamins C and E and beta carotene supplementation and cancer risk: a randomized controlled trial. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 1-7-2009;101(1):14-23.

Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Simonetti, R. G., and Gluud, C. Systematic review: primary and secondary prevention of gastrointestinal cancers with antioxidant supplements. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther. 9-15-2008;28(6):689-703.

Garbagnati, F., Cairella, G., De, Martino A., Multari, M., Scognamiglio, U., Venturiero, V., and Paolucci, S. Is antioxidant and n-3 supplementation able to improve functional status in poststroke patients? Results from the Nutristroke Trial. Cerebrovasc.Dis. 2009;27(4):375-383.

Allen, S., Britton, J. R., and Leonardi-Bee, J. A. Association between antioxidant vitamins and asthma outcome measures: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax 2009;64(7):610-619.

Song, Y., Cook, N. R., Albert, C. M., Van, Denburgh M., and Manson, J. E. Effects of vitamins C and E and beta-carotene on the risk of type 2 diabetes in women at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a randomized controlled trial. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2009;90(2):429-437.

Hercberg, S., Kesse-Guyot, E., Druesne-Pecollo, N., Touvier, M., Favier, A., Latino-Martel, P., Briancon, S., and Galan, P. Incidence of cancers, ischemic cardiovascular diseases and mortality during 5-year follow-up after stopping antioxidant vitamins and minerals supplements: a postintervention follow-up in the SU.VI.MAX Study. Int.J.Cancer 10-15-2010;127(8):1875-1881.

Papaioannou, D., Cooper, K. L., Carroll, C., Hind, D., Squires, H., Tappenden, P., and Logan, R. F. Antioxidants in the chemoprevention of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis. 2011;13(10):1085-1099.

Cooper, K., Squires, H., Carroll, C., Papaioannou, D., Booth, A., Logan, R. F., Maguire, C., Hind, D., and Tappenden, P. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol.Assess. 2010;14(32):1-206.

Devore, E. E., Grodstein, F., van Rooij, F. J., Hofman, A., Stampfer, M. J., Witteman, J. C., and Breteler, M. M. Dietary antioxidants and long-term risk of dementia. Arch.Neurol. 2010;67(7):819-825.

Stratton, J. and Godwin, M. The effect of supplemental vitamins and minerals on the development of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Fam.Pract. 2011;28(3):243-252.

Bjelakovic, G., Gluud, L. L., Nikolova, D., Bjelakovic, M., Nagorni, A., and Gluud, C. Antioxidant supplements for liver diseases. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2011;(3):CD007749.

Myung, S. K., Ju, W., Kim, S. C., and Kim, H. Vitamin or antioxidant intake (or serum level) and risk of cervical neoplasm: a meta-analysis. BJOG. 2011;118(11):1285-1291.

Fulan, H., Changxing, J., Baina, W. Y., Wencui, Z., Chunqing, L., Fan, W., Dandan, L., Dianjun, S., Tong, W., Da, P., and Yashuang, Z. Retinol, vitamins A, C, and E and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. Cancer Causes Control 2011;22(10):1383-1396.

Greenberg, E. R., Baron, J. A., Stukel, T. A., Stevens, M. M., Mandel, J. S., Spencer, S. K., Elias, P. M., Lowe, N., Nierenberg, D. W., Bayrd, G., and . A clinical trial of beta carotene to prevent basal-cell and squamous-cell cancers of the skin. The Skin Cancer Prevention Study Group. N.Engl.J.Med. 9-20-1990;323(12):789-795.

Lahner, E., Persechino, S., and Annibale, B. Micronutrients (Other than iron) and Helicobacter pylori infection: a systematic review. Helicobacter. 2012;17(1):1-15.

Galli, F., Battistoni, A., Gambari, R., Pompella, A., Bragonzi, A., Pilolli, F., Iuliano, L., Piroddi, M., Dechecchi, M. C., and Cabrini, G. Oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in cystic fibrosis. Biochim.Biophys.Acta 2012;1822(5):690-713.

Evans, J. R. and Lawrenson, J. G. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for preventing age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;6:CD000253.

Mathew, M. C., Ervin, A. M., Tao, J., and Davis, R. M. Antioxidant vitamin supplementation for preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;6:CD004567.

Cortes-Jofre, M., Rueda, J. R., Corsini-Munoz, G., Fonseca-Cortes, C., Caraballoso, M., and Bonfill, Cosp, X. Drugs for preventing lung cancer in healthy people. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;10:CD002141.

Evans, J. R. and Lawrenson, J. G. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;11:CD000254.

No author. The alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene lung cancer prevention study: design, methods, participant characteristics, and compliance. The ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group. Ann.Epidemiol. 1994;4(1):1-10.

Li, J. Y., Taylor, P. R., Li, B., Dawsey, S., Wang, G. Q., Ershow, A. G., Guo, W., Liu, S. F., Yang, C. S., Shen, Q., and . Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: multiple vitamin/mineral supplementation, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality among adults with esophageal dysplasia. J.Natl.Cancer Inst. 9-15-1993;85(18):1492-1498.

Rapola, J. M., Virtamo, J., Haukka, J. K., Heinonen, O. P., Albanes, D., Taylor, P. R., and Huttunen, J. K. Effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of angina pectoris. A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. JAMA 3-6-1996;275(9):693-698.

Richer, S. Multicenter ophthalmic and nutritional age-related macular degeneration study--part 2: antioxidant intervention and conclusions. J.Am.Optom.Assoc. 1996;67(1):30-49.

Hofstad, B., Almendingen, K., Vatn, M., Andersen, S. N., Owen, R. W., Larsen, S., and Osnes, M. Growth and recurrence of colorectal polyps: a double-blind 3-year intervention with calcium and antioxidants. Digestion 1998;59(2):148-156.

Whelan, A. M., Jurgens, T. M., and Naylor, H. Herbs, vitamins and minerals in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: a systematic review. Can.J.Clin.Pharmacol. 2009;16(3):e407-e429.

Witte, K. K., Nikitin, N. P., Parker, A. C., von Haehling, S., Volk, H. D., Anker, S. D., Clark, A. L., and Cleland, J. G. The effect of micronutrient supplementation on quality-of-life and left ventricular function in elderly patients with chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J 2005;26(21):2238-2244.

Patel, B. P. and Hamadeh, M. J. Nutritional and exercise-based interventions in the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clin Nutr. 2009;28(6):604-617.

Sieswerda, E., van Dalen, E. C., Postma, A., Cheuk, D. K., Caron, H. N., and Kremer, L. C. Medical interventions for treating anthracycline-induced symptomatic and asymptomatic cardiotoxicity during and after treatment for childhood cancer. Cochrane Database Syst.Rev. 2011;(9):CD008011.

Lockwood, K., Moesgaard, S., Hanioka, T., and Folkers, K. Apparent partial remission of breast cancer in 'high risk' patients supplemented with nutritional antioxidants, essential fatty acids and coenzyme Q10. Mol.Aspects Med 1994;15 Suppl:s231-s240.

Yaffe, K., Clemons, T. E., McBee, W. L., and Lindblad, A. S. Impact of antioxidants, zinc, and copper on cognition in the elderly: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 11-9-2004;63(9):1705-1707.

Baldinger, R., Katzberg, H. D., and Weber, M. Treatment for cramps in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;4:CD004157.

Johnson, S. R. Premenstrual syndrome therapy. Clin Obstet.Gynecol. 1998;41(2):405-421.

Ranganathan, L. N. and Ramaratnam, S. Vitamins for epilepsy. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev 2005;(2):CD004304.

Debreceni, B. and Debreceni, L. Why do homocysteine-lowering B vitamin and antioxidant E vitamin supplementations appear to be ineffective in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases? Cardiovasc.Ther. 2012;30(4):227-233.

Lazzeroni, M., Gandini, S., Puntoni, M., Bonanni, B., Gennari, A., and Decensi, A. The science behind vitamins and natural compounds for breast cancer prevention. Getting the most prevention out of it. Breast 2011;20 Suppl 3:S36-S41.

Morris, M. C. Nutritional determinants of cognitive aging and dementia. Proc.Nutr.Soc. 2012;71(1):1-13.

Marik, P. E. and Flemmer, M. Do dietary supplements have beneficial health effects in industrialized nations: what is the evidence? JPEN J.Parenter.Enteral Nutr. 2012;36(2):159-168.

Perez, L., Heim, L., Sherzai, A., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., and Sherzai, A. Nutrition and vascular dementia. J.Nutr.Health Aging 2012;16(4):319-324.

Mark, S. D., Wang, W., Fraumeni, J. F., Jr., Li, J. Y., Taylor, P. R., Wang, G. Q., Guo, W., Dawsey, S. M., Li, B., and Blot, W. J. Lowered risks of hypertension and cerebrovascular disease after vitamin/mineral supplementation: the Linxian Nutrition Intervention Trial. Am.J.Epidemiol. 4-1-1996;143(7):658-664.

Li, H., Li, H. Q., Wang, Y., Xu, H. X., Fan, W. T., Wang, M. L., Sun, P. H., and Xie, X. Y. An intervention study to prevent gastric cancer by micro-selenium and large dose of allitridum. Chin Med.J.(Engl.) 2004;117(8):1155-1160.

Safarinejad, M. R., Hosseini, S. Y., and Kolahi, A. A. Comparison of vitamin E and propionyl-L-carnitine, separately or in combination, in patients with early chronic Peyronie's disease: a double-blind, placebo controlled, randomized study. J Urol. 2007;178(4 Pt 1):1398-1403.

Socha, P., Horvath, A., Vajro, P., Dziechciarz, P., Dhawan, A., and Szajewska, H. Pharmacological interventions for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in adults and in children: a systematic review. J Pediatr.Gastroenterol.Nutr. 2009;48(5):587-596.

Morris, C. R. and Agin, M. C. Syndrome of allergy, apraxia, and malabsorption: characterization of a neurodevelopmental phenotype that responds to omega 3 and vitamin E supplementation. Altern.Ther Health Med. 2009;15(4):34-43.

Bartlett, H. E. and Eperjesi, F. Effect of lutein and antioxidant dietary supplementation on contrast sensitivity in age-related macular disease: a randomized controlled trial. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2007;61(9):1121-1127.

Piermarocchi, S., Saviano, S., Parisi, V., Tedeschi, M., Panozzo, G., Scarpa, G., Boschi, G., and Lo, Giudice G. Carotenoids in Age-related Maculopathy Italian Study (CARMIS): two-year results of a randomized study. Eur.J.Ophthalmol. 2012;22(2):216-225.

Voorrips, L. E., Goldbohm, R. A., Brants, H. A., van Poppel, G. A., Sturmans, F., Hermus, R. J., and van den Brandt, P. A. A prospective cohort study on antioxidant and folate intake and male lung cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9(4):357-365.

Helzlsouer, K. J., Alberg, A. J., Norkus, E. P., Morris, J. S., Hoffman, S. C., and Comstock, G. W. Prospective study of serum micronutrients and ovarian cancer. J Natl.Cancer Inst. 1-3-1996;88(1):32-37.

Nomura, A. M., Stemmermann, G. N., Lee, J., and Craft, N. E. Serum micronutrients and prostate cancer in Japanese Americans in Hawaii. Cancer Epidemiol.Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6(7):487-491.

Dorgan, J. F., Sowell, A., Swanson, C. A., Potischman, N., Miller, R., Schussler, N., and Stephenson, H. E., Jr. Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, alpha-tocopherol, and selenium with breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1998;9(1):89-97.

Stewart, S., Prince, M., Bassendine, M., Hudson, M., James, O., Jones, D., Record, C., and Day, C. P. A randomized trial of antioxidant therapy alone or with corticosteroids in acute alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2007;47(2):277-283.

Loguercio C, Andreone P, Brisc C, et al. Silybin combined with phosphatidylcholine and vitamin E in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized controlled trial. Free Radic Biol Med 2012;52(9):1658-65.

Albanes, D., Malila, N., Taylor, P. R., Huttunen, J. K., Virtamo, J., Edwards, B. K., Rautalahti, M., Hartman, A. M., Barrett, M. J., Pietinen, P., Hartman, T. J., Sipponen, P., Lewin, K., Teerenhovi, L., Hietanen, P., Tangrea, J. A., Virtanen, M., and Heinonen, O. P. Effects of supplemental alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene on colorectal cancer: results from a controlled trial (Finland). Cancer Causes Control 2000;11(3):197-205.

Blot, W. J. Preventing cancer by disrupting progression of precancerous lesions. J Natl.Cancer Inst. 12-6-2000;92(23):1868-1869.

Virtamo, J., Edwards, B. K., Virtanen, M., Taylor, P. R., Malila, N., Albanes, D., Huttunen, J. K., Hartman, A. M., Hietanen, P., Maenpaa, H., Koss, L., Nordling, S., and Heinonen, O. P. Effects of supplemental alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene on urinary tract cancer: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial (Finland). Cancer Causes Control 2000;11(10):933-939.

Poulter, J. M., White, W. F., and Dickerson, J. W. Ascorbic acid supplementation and five year survival rates in women with early breast cancer. Acta Vitaminol.Enzymol. 1984;6(3):175-182.

Bussey, H. J., DeCosse, J. J., Deschner, E. E., Eyers, A. A., Lesser, M. L., Morson, B. C., Ritchie, S. M., Thomson, J. P., and Wadsworth, J. A randomized trial of ascorbic acid in polyposis coli. Cancer 10-1-1982;50(7):1434-1439.

Blot, W. J., Li, J. Y., Taylor, P. R., Guo, W., Dawsey, S. M., and Li, B. The Linxian trials: mortality rates by vitamin-mineral intervention group. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;62(6 Suppl):1424S-1426S.

Li, B., Taylor, P. R., Li, J. Y., Dawsey, S. M., Wang, W., Tangrea, J. A., Liu, B. Q., Ershow, A. G., Zheng, S. F., Fraumeni, J. F., Jr., and . Linxian nutrition intervention trials. Design, methods, participant characteristics, and compliance. Ann Epidemiol. 1993;3(6):577-585.

Taylor, P. R., Li, B., Dawsey, S. M., Li, J. Y., Yang, C. S., Guo, W., and Blot, W. J. Prevention of esophageal cancer: the nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China. Linxian Nutrition Intervention Trials Study Group. Cancer Res 4-1-1994;54(7 Suppl):2029s-2031s.

Lamm, D. L., Riggs, D. R., Shriver, J. S., vanGilder, P. F., Rach, J. F., and DeHaven, J. I. Megadose vitamins in bladder cancer: a double-blind clinical trial. J Urol 1994;151(1):21-26.

Cahill, R. J., O'Sullivan, K. R., Mathias, P. M., Beattie, S., Hamilton, H., and O'Morain, C. Effects of vitamin antioxidant supplementation on cell kinetics of patients with adenomatous polyps. Gut 1993;34(7):963-967.

Gogos, C. A., Ginopoulos, P., Salsa, B., Apostolidou, E., Zoumbos, N. C., and Kalfarentzos, F. Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids plus vitamin E restore immunodeficiency and prolong survival for severely ill patients with generalized malignancy: a randomized control trial. Cancer 1-15-1998;82(2):395-402.

Rosselli, J. L., Thacker, S. M., Karpinski, J. P., and Petkewicz, K. A. Treatment of IgA nephropathy: an update. Ann.Pharmacother. 2011;45(10):1284-1296.

Trikalinos, T. A., Moorthy, D., Chung, M., Yu, W. W., Lee, J., Lichtenstein, A. H., and Lau, J. Concordance of randomized and nonrandomized studies was unrelated to translational patterns of two nutrient-disease associations. J.Clin.Epidemiol. 2012;65(1):16-29.

Bath-Hextall, F. J., Jenkinson, C., Humphreys, R., and Williams, H. C. Dietary supplements for established atopic eczema. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;2:CD005205.

Law, M. R. and Morris, J. K. By how much does fruit and vegetable consumption reduce the risk of ischaemic heart disease? Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52(8):549-556.

Ciliberto, H., Ciliberto, M., Briend, A., Ashorn, P., Bier, D., and Manary, M. Antioxidant supplementation for the prevention of kwashiorkor in Malawian children: randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial. BMJ 5-14-2005;330(7500):1109.

Odigwe, C. C., Smedslund, G., Ejemot-Nwadiaro, R. I., Anyanechi, C. C., and Krawinkel, M. B. Supplementary vitamin E, selenium, cysteine and riboflavin for preventing kwashiorkor in preschool children in developing countries. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2010;(4):CD008147.

Munoz, N., Wahrendorf, J., Bang, L. J., Crespi, M., Thurnham, D. I., Day, N. E., Ji, Z. H., Grassi, A., Yan, L. W., Lin, L. G., and . No effect of riboflavine, retinol, and zinc on prevalence of precancerous lesions of oesophagus. Randomised double-blind intervention study in high-risk population of China. Lancet 7-20-1985;2(8447):111-114.

Pfeiffer, J. M., Askew, E. W., Roberts, D. E., Wood, S. M., Benson, J. E., Johnson, S. C., and Freedman, M. S. Effect of antioxidant supplementation on urine and blood markers of oxidative stress during extended moderate-altitude training. Wilderness.Environ.Med 1999;10(2):66-74.

Chao, W. H., Askew, E. W., Roberts, D. E., Wood, S. M., and Perkins, J. B. Oxidative stress in humans during work at moderate altitude. J Nutr. 1999;129(11):2009-2012.

Allsup, S. J., Shenkin, A., Gosney, M. A., Taylor, S., Taylor, W., Hammond, M., and Zambon, M. C. Can a short period of micronutrient supplementation in older institutionalized people improve response to influenza vaccine? A randomized, controlled trial. J Am.Geriatr.Soc. 2004;52(1):20-24.

Groenbaek, K., Friis, H., Hansen, M., Ring-Larsen, H., and Krarup, H. B. The effect of antioxidant supplementation on hepatitis C viral load, transaminases and oxidative status: a randomized trial among chronic hepatitis C virus-infected patients. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;18(9):985-989.

Singh, U., Otvos, J., Dasgupta, A., de Lemos, J. A., Devaraj, S., and Jialal, I. High-dose alpha-tocopherol therapy does not affect HDL subfractions in patients with coronary artery disease on statin therapy. Clin Chem 2007;53(3):525-528.

Yu, S. Y., Zhu, Y. J., Li, W. G., Huang, Q. S., Huang, C. Z., Zhang, Q. N., and Hou, C. A preliminary report on the intervention trials of primary liver cancer in high-risk populations with nutritional supplementation of selenium in China. Biol.Trace Elem.Res. 1991;29(3):289-294.

Fairris, G. M., Perkins, P. J., Lloyd, B., Hinks, L., and Clayton, B. E. The effect on atopic dermatitis of supplementation with selenium and vitamin E. Acta Derm.Venereol. 1989;69(4):359-362.

Gaby, A. R. Natural approaches to epilepsy. Altern.Med Rev. 2007;12(1):9-24.

Bohlke, K., Spiegelman, D., Trichopoulou, A., Katsouyanni, K., and Trichopoulos, D. Vitamins A, C and E and the risk of breast cancer: results from a case-control study in Greece. Br.J Cancer 1999;79(1):23-29.

Look, M. P., Gerard, A., Rao, G. S., Sudhop, T., Fischer, H. P., Sauerbruch, T., and Spengler, U. Interferon/antioxidant combination therapy for chronic hepatitis C--a controlled pilot trial. Antiviral Res 1999;43(2):113-122.

Ideo, G., Bellobuono, A., Tempini, S., Mondazzi, L., Airoldi, A., Benetti, G., Bissoli, F., Cestari, C., Colombo, E., Del, Poggio P., Fracassetti, O., Lazzaroni, S., Marelli, A., Paris, B., Prada, A., Rainer, E., and Roffi, L. Antioxidant drugs combined with alpha-interferon in chronic hepatitis C not responsive to alpha-interferon alone: a randomized, multicentre study. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 1999;11(11):1203-1207.

Moorman, P. G., Ricciuti, M. F., Millikan, R. C., and Newman, B. Vitamin supplement use and breast cancer in a North Carolina population. Public Health Nutr 2001;4(3):821-827.

MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 7-6-2002;360(9326):7-22.

Gueguen, S., Pirollet, P., Leroy, P., Guilland, J. C., Arnaud, J., Paille, F., Siest, G., Visvikis, S., Hercberg, S., and Herbeth, B. Changes in serum retinol, alpha-tocopherol, vitamin C, carotenoids, xinc and selenium after micronutrient supplementation during alcohol rehabilitation. J.Am.Coll.Nutr. 2003;22(4):303-310.

Mezey, E., Potter, J. J., Rennie-Tankersley, L., Caballeria, J., and Pares, A. A randomized placebo controlled trial of vitamin E for alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol. 2004;40(1):40-46.

Takagi, H., Kakizaki, S., Sohara, N., Sato, K., Tsukioka, G., Tago, Y., Konaka, K., Kabeya, K., Kaneko, M., Takayama, H., Hashimoto, Y., Yamada, T., Takahashi, H., Shimojo, H., Nagamine, T., and Mori, M. Pilot clinical trial of the use of alpha-tocopherol for the prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with liver cirrhosis. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2003;73(6):411-415.

Saeian, K., Bajaj, J. S., Franco, J., Knox, J. F., Daniel, J., Peine, C., McKee, D., Varma, R. R., and Ho, S. High-dose vitamin E supplementation does not diminish ribavirin-associated haemolysis in hepatitis C treatment with combination standard alpha-interferon and ribavirin. Aliment.Pharmacol.Ther 11-15-2004;20(10):1189-1193.

Avenell, A., Campbell, M. K., Cook, J. A., Hannaford, P. C., Kilonzo, M. M., McNeill, G., Milne, A. C., Ramsay, C. R., Seymour, D. G., Stephen, A. I., and Vale, L. D. Effect of multivitamin and multimineral supplements on morbidity from infections in older people (MAVIS trial): pragmatic, randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial. BMJ 8-6-2005;331(7512):324-329.

Hino, K., Murakami, Y., Nagai, A., Kitase, A., Hara, Y., Furutani, T., Ren, F., Yamaguchi, Y., Yutoku, K., Yamashita, S., Okuda, M., Okita, M., and Okita, K. Alpha-tocopherol [corrected] and ascorbic acid attenuates the ribavirin [corrected] induced decrease of eicosapentaenoic acid in erythrocyte membrane in chronic hepatitis C patients. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006;21(8):1269-1275.

Canter, P. H., Wider, B., and Ernst, E. The antioxidant vitamins A, C, E and selenium in the treatment of arthritis: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Rheumatology.(Oxford) 2007;46(8):1223-1233.

Gabbay, E., Zigmond, E., Pappo, O., Hemed, N., Rowe, M., Zabrecky, G., Cohen, R., and Ilan, Y. Antioxidant therapy for chronic hepatitis C after failure of interferon: results of phase II randomized, double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial. World J Gastroenterol 10-28-2007;13(40):5317-5323.

Maraini, G., Williams, S. L., Sperduto, R. D., Ferris, F., Milton, R. C., Clemons, T. E., Rosmini, F., and Ferrigno, L. A randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled clinical trial of multivitamin supplementation for age-related lens opacities. Clinical trial of nutritional supplements and age-related cataract report no. 3. Ophthalmology 2008;115(4):599-607.

Penn, N. D., Purkins, L., Kelleher, J., Heatley, R. V., Mascie-Taylor, B. H., and Belfield, P. W. The effect of dietary supplementation with vitamins A, C and E on cell-mediated immune function in elderly long-stay patients: a randomized controlled trial. Age Ageing 1991;20(3):169-174.

Agte, V. and Tarwadi, K. The importance of nutrition in the prevention of ocular disease with special reference to cataract. Ophthalmic Res 2010;44(3):166-172.

Verreault, R., Chu, J., Mandelson, M., and Shy, K. A case-control study of diet and invasive cervical cancer. Int J Cancer 6-15-1989;43(6):1050-1054.

Pike, J. and Chandra, R. K. Effect of vitamin and trace element supplementation on immune indices in healthy elderly. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1995;65(2):117-121.

de la Maza, M. P., Petermann, M., Bunout, D., and Hirsch, S. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation in alcoholic cirrhotics. J Am Coll Nutr 1995;14(2):192-196.

Butcher, G. P., Rhodes, J. M., Walker, R., Krasner, N., and Jackson, M. J. The effect of antioxidant supplementation on a serum marker of free radical activity and abnormal serum biochemistry in alcoholic patients admitted for detoxification. J Hepatol. 1993;19(1):105-109.

Negri, E., La, Vecchia C., Franceschi, S., D'Avanzo, B., Talamini, R., Parpinel, M., Ferraroni, M., Filiberti, R., Montella, M., Falcini, F., Conti, E., and Decarli, A. Intake of selected micronutrients and the risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer 1-17-1996;65(2):140-144.

Verhoeven, D. T., Assen, N., Goldbohm, R. A., Dorant, E., van, 't, V, Sturmans, F., Hermus, R. J., and Van den Brandt, P. A. Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fibre in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. Br.J Cancer 1997;75(1):149-155.

Yu, S. Y., Zhu, Y. J., and Li, W. G. Protective role of selenium against hepatitis B virus and primary liver cancer in Qidong. Biol Trace Elem.Res 1997;56(1):117-124.

von, Herbay A., Stahl, W., Niederau, C., and Sies, H. Vitamin E improves the aminotransferase status of patients suffering from viral hepatitis C: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Free Radic.Res 1997;27(6):599-605.

Fang, J. C., Kinlay, S., Beltrame, J., Hikiti, H., Wainstein, M., Behrendt, D., Suh, J., Frei, B., Mudge, G. H., Selwyn, A. P., and Ganz, P. Effect of vitamins C and E on progression of transplant-associated arteriosclerosis: a randomised trial. Lancet 3-30-2002;359(9312):1108-1113.

Hodis, H. N., Mack, W. J., LaBree, L., Mahrer, P. R., Sevanian, A., Liu, C. R., Liu, C. H., Hwang, J., Selzer, R. H., and Azen, S. P. Alpha-tocopherol supplementation in healthy individuals reduces low-density lipoprotein oxidation but not atherosclerosis: the Vitamin E Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (VEAPS). Circulation 9-17-2002;106(12):1453-1459.

Zureik, M., Galan, P., Bertrais, S., Mennen, L., Czernichow, S., Blacher, J., Ducimetiere, P., and Hercberg, S. Effects of long-term daily low-dose supplementation with antioxidant vitamins and minerals on structure and function of large arteries. Arterioscler.Thromb.Vasc.Biol. 2004;24(8):1485-1491.

DeMaio, S. J., King, S. B., III, Lembo, N. J., Roubin, G. S., Hearn, J. A., Bhagavan, H. N., and Sgoutas, D. S. Vitamin E supplementation, plasma lipids and incidence of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA). J Am.Coll.Nutr 1992;11(1):68-73.

Dror, D. K. and Allen, L. H. Interventions with vitamins B6, B12 and C in pregnancy. Paediatr.Perinat.Epidemiol. 2012;26 Suppl 1:55-74.

Myung, S. K., Ju, W., Cho, B., Oh, S. W., Park, S. M., Koo, B. K., and Park, B. J. Efficacy of vitamin and antioxidant supplements in prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2013;346:f10.

de Valk, H. W., Hardus, P. L., van Rijn, H. J., and Erkelens, D. W. Plasma magnesium concentration and progression of retinopathy. Diabetes Care 1999;22(5):864-865.

Marchioli, R. Antioxidant vitamins and prevention of cardiovascular disease: laboratory, epidemiological and clinical trial data. Pharmacol.Res 1999;40(3):227-238.

Garrett, S. K., McNeil, J. J., Silagy, C., Sinclair, M., Thomas, A. P., Robman, L. P., McCarty, C. A., Tikellis, G., and Taylor, H. R. Methodology of the VECAT study: vitamin E intervention in cataract and age-related maculopathy. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 1999;6(3):195-208.

Ekstrom, A. M., Serafini, M., Nyren, O., Hansson, L. E., Ye, W., and Wolk, A. Dietary antioxidant intake and the risk of cardia cancer and noncardia cancer of the intestinal and diffuse types: a population-based case-control study in Sweden. Int J Cancer 7-1-2000;87(1):133-140.

Understanding Mitochondria and Energy

Calm Strategies for Alzheimer’s Care

CONDITIONS OF USE AND IMPORTANT INFORMATION: This information is meant to supplement, not replace advice from your doctor or healthcare provider and is not meant to cover all possible uses, precautions, interactions or adverse effects. This information may not fit your specific health circumstances. Never delay or disregard seeking professional medical advice from your doctor or other qualified health care provider because of something you have read on WebMD. You should always speak with your doctor or health care professional before you start, stop, or change any prescribed part of your health care plan or treatment and to determine what course of therapy is right for you.

This copyrighted material is licensed from Therapeutic Research Center, LLC. Information from this source is evidence-based and objective, and without commercial influence. For professional medical information on natural medicines, see Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database Professional Version.
Licensed from Therapeutic Research Center, LLC
Copyright © 1995-2025 by Therapeutic Research Center, LLC. All Rights Reserved.

Vitamin E - Uses, Side Effects, and More

Overview

Uses & Effectiveness

Effective for

Possibly Effective for

Possibly Ineffective for

Likely InEffective for

Side Effects

Special Precautions and Warnings

Interactions

Moderate Interaction

Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune) interacts with Vitamin E

Medications changed by the liver (Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) substrates) interacts with Vitamin E

Medications for cancer (Alkylating agents) interacts with Vitamin E

Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with Vitamin E

Niacin interacts with Vitamin E

Warfarin (Coumadin) interacts with Vitamin E

Antibiotics for cancer (Antitumor antibiotics) interacts with Vitamin E

Selumetinib (Koselugo) interacts with Vitamin E

Dosing

You Might Also Like