Coffee: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing and Reviews

Overview

Coffee is a popular drink made from the roasted beans of Coffea fruits (Coffea arabica, Coffea canephora). It contains caffeine and chlorogenic acid.

The caffeine in coffee works by stimulating the central nervous system (CNS), heart, and muscles. Chlorogenic acid might affect blood vessels and how the body handles blood sugar and metabolism.

People most commonly drink coffee to increase mental alertness. Coffee is also used for diabetes, cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, dementia, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support most of these uses.

Don't confuse coffee with other caffeine sources, such as green coffee, black tea, and green tea. These are not the same.

Uses & Effectiveness

Likely Effective for

Mental alertness. Drinking caffeinated coffee throughout the day seems to increase alertness and thinking skills. Caffeine can also improve alertness after sleep deprivation. Even one cup of caffeinated coffee can reduce fatigue and increase alertness.

Possibly Effective for

Diabetes. People who drink more coffee seem to have a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes. The risk lowers more with each cup that's consumed. People with type 2 diabetes who drink more coffee might also have a slightly lower risk of dying.
Heart failure. Drinking caffeinated coffee seems to reduce the long-term risk of heart failure in people who do not have heart disease.
Death from any cause. Drinking coffee every day is linked to a slightly lower risk of dying from any cause or from heart disease. It's unclear if drinking coffee is linked with a lower risk of death from cancer.
Parkinson disease. Drinking caffeinated coffee seems to reduce the risk of developing Parkinson disease. The risk lowers more with each cup that's consumed in males, but not in females. Coffee doesn't seem to help prevent Parkinson disease in people who smoke cigarettes.
Ability to open bowels and pass stool (poop) following surgery. Drinking coffee might speed up the first stool after certain gut surgeries.
Impaired movement of food through the intestines after surgery. Drinking coffee might prevent the impaired movement of food through the intestines after certain gut surgeries.

Possibly Ineffective for

Cancer of the esophagus. Drinking coffee doesn't seem to lower the risk of developing cancer of the esophagus.

There is interest in using coffee for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful.

Side Effects

When taken by mouth: Coffee is commonly consumed as a beverage. Drinking coffee in moderate amounts (about 4 cups daily) is likely safe for most people.

Drinking more than 4 cups of coffee daily is possibly unsafe. Drinking large amounts might cause side effects due to the caffeine content. These side effects can range from mild to serious and include headache and irregular heartbeat.

When given as an enema (rectally): Coffee is possibly unsafe. Coffee enemas have been linked to cases of severe side effects, including death.

Special Precautions and Warnings

Pregnancy: Drinking moderate amounts of coffee during pregnancy is possibly safe. Do not drink more than 3 cups of coffee daily. This provides about 300 mg of caffeine. Consuming more than this during pregnancy is possibly unsafe and has been linked to an increased risk of miscarriage, increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and other negative effects, including symptoms of caffeine withdrawal in newborns and a lower birth weight.

Breast-feeding: Drinking 1-2 cups of coffee daily while breast-feeding is possibly safe. But drinking larger amounts is possibly unsafe. The caffeine in coffee is passed into breastmilk. It might cause irritability and increased bowel movements in nursing infants.

Children: Caffeinated coffee is possibly safe in children when consumed in the normal amounts found in food and beverages.

Anxiety disorders: The caffeine in coffee might make anxiety worse.

Bipolar disorder: The caffeine in coffee might make symptoms of mania worse.

Bleeding disorders: The caffeine in coffee might slow blood clotting and make bleeding disorders worse.

Heart disease: Drinking coffee on a daily basis doesn't seem to increase the risk for serious complications from heart disease. But people who smoke and have heart disease might have an increased risk of dying from heart disease if they consume coffee daily.

Diabetes: The caffeine in coffee might affect blood sugar. Use coffee with caution if you have diabetes.

Diarrhea: The caffeine in coffee, especially when taken in large amounts, can worsen diarrhea.

Seizures: Coffee contains caffeine. People with epilepsy should avoid using caffeine in high doses. Low doses of caffeine should be used cautiously.

Glaucoma: Drinking caffeinated coffee increases pressure inside the eye. The increase starts within 30 minutes and lasts for at least 90 minutes. If you have glaucoma, drink coffee with caution.

High blood pressure: Drinking caffeinated coffee might increase blood pressure in people with high blood pressure. But this doesn't seem to occur in people who drink caffeinated products regularly.

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): Coffee contains caffeine. The caffeine in coffee, especially when taken in large amounts, may worsen diarrhea and other symptoms of IBS.

Loss of bladder control: Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine can make bladder control worse by increasing frequency of urination and the urge to urinate.

Smoking: People who smoke and drink coffee might have an increased risk of dying from heart disease or cancer.

Thinning bones (osteoporosis): Drinking caffeinated coffee can increase the amount of calcium that is flushed out in the urine. This might weaken bones. If you have osteoporosis, don't drink more than 3 cups of coffee daily. If you are generally healthy and get enough calcium from your food or supplements, drinking about 4 cups of coffee daily doesn't seem to increase the risk of getting osteoporosis.

Interactions

Moderate Interaction

Be cautious with this combination

Verapamil (Calan, others) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Verapamil can decrease how quickly the body gets rid of caffeine. Drinking coffee and taking verapamil can increase the risk of caffeine side effects including jitteriness, and fast heartbeat.
Adenosine (Adenocard) interacts with Coffee
The caffeine in coffee might block the effects of adenosine, which is used to do a test called a cardiac stress test. Stop consuming coffee or other caffeine-containing products at least 24 hours before a cardiac stress test.
Phenylpropanolamine interacts with Coffee
The caffeine in coffee can stimulate the body. Phenylpropanolamine can also stimulate the body. Taking caffeine and phenylpropanolamine together might cause too much stimulation and increase heartbeat, blood pressure, and cause nervousness.
Alendronate (Fosamax) interacts with Coffee
Coffee can decrease how much alendronate the body absorbs. Taking coffee and alendronate at the same time can decrease the effects of alendronate. Don't drink coffee within two hours of taking alendronate.
Birth control pills (Contraceptive drugs) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. The body breaks down caffeine to get rid of it. Birth control pills can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. This might increase the risk for side effects from caffeine, such as jitteriness, headache, and fast heartbeat.
Clozapine (Clozaril) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down clozapine to get rid of it. The caffeine in coffee might decrease how fast the body breaks down clozapine. Taking coffee along with clozapine can increase the effects and side effects of clozapine.
Dipyridamole (Persantine) interacts with Coffee
The caffeine in coffee might block the effects of dipyridamole. Dipyridamole is often used by doctors to do a test on the heart called a cardiac stress test. Stop drinking coffee or other caffeine-containing products at least 24 hours before a cardiac stress test.
Ephedrine interacts with Coffee
Stimulant drugs speed up the nervous system. Caffeine, which is found in coffee, and ephedrine are both stimulant drugs. Drinking coffee and taking ephedrine might cause too much stimulation and sometimes serious side effects and heart problems. Do not take caffeine-containing products and ephedrine at the same time.
Levothyroxine (Synthroid, others) interacts with Coffee
Drinking coffee might reduce the amount of levothyroxine that is absorbed when taken by mouth. This can decrease how well levothyroxine works. Avoid drinking coffee for at least an hour after taking levothyroxine.
Lithium interacts with Coffee
The caffeine in coffee can increase how quickly the body gets rid of lithium. If you take products that contain caffeine and you take lithium, don't stop drinking coffee suddenly. Instead, slowly reduce intake of coffee. Stopping caffeine too quickly can increase the side effects of lithium.
Medications for depression (MAOIs) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. There is some concern that caffeine can interact with certain medications, called MAOIs. If caffeine is taken with these medications, it might increase the risk for serious side effects including fast heartbeat and very high blood pressure.

Some common MAOIs include phenelzine (Nardil), selegiline (Zelapar), and tranylcypromine (Parnate).
Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interacts with Coffee
Coffee might increase blood sugar levels. Taking coffee along with diabetes medications might reduce the effects of these medications. Monitor your blood sugar closely.
Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with Coffee
Coffee might slow blood clotting. Taking coffee along with medications that also slow blood clotting might increase the risk of bruising and bleeding.
Pentobarbital (Nembutal) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. The stimulant effects of caffeine can block the sleep-producing effects of pentobarbital.
Riluzole (Rilutek) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down riluzole to get rid of it. Drinking coffee can decrease how fast the body breaks down riluzole. This can increase the effects and side effects of riluzole.
Stimulant drugs interacts with Coffee
Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cocaine, speed up the nervous system. By speeding up the nervous system, stimulant medications can increase blood pressure and speed up the heartbeat. Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine can also speed up the nervous system. Taking coffee along with stimulant drugs might cause serious problems including increased heart rate and high blood pressure.
Pioglitazone (Actos) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine might increase the amount of pioglitazone that the body absorbs. Taking coffee might increase the effects and adverse effects of pioglitazone.
Lamotrigine (Lamictal) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down lamotrigine to get rid of it. Coffee might increase how quickly the body breaks down lamotrigine. This might reduce the effects of lamotrigine.
Nicotine interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. Taking coffee along with nicotine might cause a fast heartbeat and increase blood pressure.
Water pills (Diuretic drugs) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine, especially in large amounts, can reduce potassium levels in the body. "Water pills" can also decrease potassium levels in the body. Taking large amounts of caffeine along with "water pills" might decrease potassium levels too much.

Minor Interaction

Be watchful with this combination

Terbinafine (Lamisil) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Terbinafine can decrease how fast the body gets rid of caffeine and increase the risk of caffeine side effects including jitteriness and fast heartbeat.
Theophylline interacts with Coffee
The caffeine in coffee works similarly to theophylline. Caffeine can also decrease how quickly the body gets rid of theophylline. Drinking coffee and taking theophylline might increase the effects and side effects of theophylline.
Medications for asthma (Beta-adrenergic agonists) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. Caffeine can stimulate the heart. Some medications for asthma can also stimulate the heart. Taking caffeine with some medications for asthma might cause too much stimulation and cause heart problems.
Alcohol (Ethanol) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Alcohol can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking coffee along with alcohol might increase the risk of caffeine side effects including jitteriness, headache, and fast heartbeat.
Antibiotics (Quinolone antibiotics) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. The body breaks down caffeine to get rid of it. Some antibiotics might decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking these antibiotics along with coffee might increase the risk of side effects including jitteriness, headache, increased heart rate, and other side effects.
Cimetidine (Tagamet) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Cimetidine can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking cimetidine along with coffee might increase the chance of caffeine side effects including jitteriness, headache, and fast heartbeat.
Disulfiram (Antabuse) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Disulfiram can decrease how quickly the body gets rid of caffeine. Taking coffee along with disulfiram might increase the risk of caffeine side effects, including jitteriness, irritability, and fast heartbeat.
Estrogens interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down caffeine to get rid of it. Estrogens can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking estrogen along with coffee can increase the risk of side effects such as jitteriness, headache, and fast heartbeat.
Fluconazole (Diflucan) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Fluconazole might decrease how quickly the body gets rid of caffeine. Taking fluconazole and drinking coffee might increase the risk of caffeine side effects, including jitteriness and fast heartbeat.
Fluvoxamine (Luvox) interacts with Coffee
The body breaks down the caffeine in coffee to get rid of it. Fluvoxamine can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking caffeine along with fluvoxamine might increase the risk of caffeine side effects.
Medications for depression (Tricyclic antidepressants) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains chemicals called tannins. Tannins can bind to certain medications for depression (tricyclic antidepressants) and decrease how much medicine the body absorbs. To avoid this interaction, avoid coffee one hour before and two hours after taking these medications.
Mexiletine (Mexitil) interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains caffeine. The body breaks down caffeine to get rid of it. Mexiletine can decrease how quickly the body breaks down caffeine. Taking mexiletine along with coffee might increase the risk of caffeine side effects.
Phenothiazines interacts with Coffee
Coffee contains chemicals called tannins. Tannins can bind to phenothiazines and decrease how much medicine the body absorbs. To avoid this interaction, avoid coffee one hour before and two hours after taking these medications.

Dosing

Coffee is commonly consumed by adults as a beverage, typically in amounts of 2 cups daily. This provides about 250 mg of caffeine. Speak with a healthcare provider to find out what dose might be best for a specific condition.

View References

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Cai L, Ma D, Zhang Y, Liu Z, Wang P. The effect of coffee consumption on serum lipids: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2012 Aug;66(8):872-7. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2012.68.

Coffee consumption and calcified atherosclerotic plaques in the coronary arteries: The NHLBI Family Heart Study. Patel YR, Gadiraju TV, Ellison RC, et al. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2017 Feb;17:18-21. doi: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2016.12.003.

Grosso G, Micek A, Godos J, et al. Long-term coffee consumption is associated with decreased incidence of new-onset hypertension: a dose-response meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2017 Aug 17;9(8). pii: E890. doi: 10.3390/nu9080890.

Crippa A, Discacciati A, Larsson SC, Wolk A, Orsini N. Coffee consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2014 Oct 15;180(8):763-75. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwu194.

Loftfield E, Cornelis MC, Caporaso N, Yu K, Sinha R, Freedman N. Association of coffee drinking With mortality by genetic variation in caffeine metabolism: findings from the UK biobank. JAMA Intern Med. 2018 Aug 1;178(8):1086-1097. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.2425.

Wu W, Tong Y, Zhao Q, Yu G, Wei X, Lu Q. Coffee consumption and bladder cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Sci Rep. 2015 Mar 12;5:9051. doi: 10.1038/srep09051.

Sugiyama K, Sugawara Y, Tomata Y, Nishino Y, Fukao A, Tsuji I. The association between coffee consumption and bladder cancer incidence in a pooled analysis of the Miyagi Cohort Study and Ohsaki Cohort Study. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2017 Mar;26(2):125-130. doi: 10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000226.

Li XJ, Ren ZJ, Qin JW, et al. Coffee consumption and risk of breast cancer: an up-to-date meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e52681. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052681.

Yew YW, Lai YC, Schwartz RA. Coffee consumption and melanoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2016 Apr;17(2):113-23. doi: 10.1007/s40257-015-0165-1. Review.

Liu J, Shen B, Shi M, Cai J. Higher caffeinated coffee intake Is associated with reduced malignant melanoma risk: a meta-analysis study. PLoS One. 2016 Jan 27;11(1):e0147056. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147056.

Caini S, Cattaruzza MS, Bendinelli et al. Coffee, tea and caffeine intake and the risk of non-melanoma skin cancer: a review of the literature and meta-analysis. Eur J Nutr. 2017 Feb;56(1):1-12. doi: 10.1007/s00394-016-1253-6.

Lafranconi A, Micek A, Galvano F, et al. Coffee decreases the risk of endometrial cancer: A dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Nutrients. 2017 Nov 9;9(11). pii: E1223. doi: 10.3390/nu9111223.

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Discacciati A, Orsini N, Wolk A. Coffee consumption and risk of nonaggressive, aggressive and fatal prostate cancer--a dose-response meta-analysis. Ann Oncol. 2014 Mar;25(3):584-91. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdt420.

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Güngördük K, Özdemir IA, Güngördük Ö, Gülseren V, Gokçü M, Sanci M. Effects of coffee consumption on gut recovery after surgery of gynecological cancer patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Feb;216(2):145.e1-145.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2016.10.019.

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Wikoff D, Welsh BT, Henderson R, et al. Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food Chem Toxicol 2017;109:585-648.

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Abdelfattah R, Kamran H, Lazar J, Kassotis J. Does Caffeine Consumption Increase the Risk of New-Onset Atrial Fibrillation? Cardiology. 2018;140(2):106-114.

Bravi F, Tavani A, Bosetti C, Boffetta P, La Vecchia C. Coffee and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2017;26(5):368-377.

Grosso G, Micek A, Castellano S, Pajak A, Galvano F. Coffee, tea, caffeine and risk of depression: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2016;60(1):223-34.

Haskell-Ramsay CF, Jackson PA, Forster JS, Dodd FL, Bowerbank SL, Kennedy DO. The Acute Effects of Caffeinated Black Coffee on Cognition and Mood in Healthy Young and Older Adults. Nutrients. 2018;10(10). pii: E1386.

Larsson SC, Orsini N. Coffee Consumption and Risk of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies. Nutrients. 2018;10(10). pii: E1501.

Lee DR, Lee J, Rota M, et al. Coffee consumption and risk of fractures: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Bone. 2014;63:20-8.

Li S, Dai Z, Wu Q. Effect of coffee intake on hip fracture: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Nutr J. 2015;14:38.

Miranda J, Monteiro L, Albuquerque R, et al. Coffee is protective against oral and pharyngeal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2017;22(5):e554-e561.

Song Y, Wang Z, Jin Y, Guo J. Association between tea and coffee consumption and brain cancer risk: an updated meta-analysis. World J Surg Oncol. 2019;17(1):51.

Wijarnpreecha K, Panjawatanan P, Mousa OY, Cheungpasitporn W, Pungpapong S, Ungprasert P. Heavy Coffee Consumption and Risk of Pancreatitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Dig Dis Sci. 2018;63(11):3134-3140.

Wijarnpreecha K, Thongprayoon C, Ungprasert P. Coffee consumption and risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2017;29(2):e8-e12.

Zeng SB, Weng H, Zhou M, Duan XL, Shen XF, Zeng XT. Long-Term Coffee Consumption and Risk of Gastric Cancer: A PRISMA-Compliant Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(38):e1640.

Zhang J, Zhou B, Hao C. Coffee consumption and risk of esophageal cancer incidence: A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;97(17):e0514.

Lee AH, Kabashneh S, Tsouvalas CP, et al. Proctocolitis from coffee enema. ACG Case Rep J. 2020;7(1):e00292.

Bazal P, Gea A, Navarro AM, et al. Caffeinated coffee consumption and risk of atrial fibrillation in two Spanish cohorts. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2020:2047487320909065.

Bhurwal A, Rattan P, Yoshitake S, et al. Inverse Association of Coffee with Liver Cancer Development: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis. 2020;29(3):421-428.

Chen YP, Lu FB, Hu YB, et al. A systematic review and a dose-response meta-analysis of coffee dose and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin Nutr. 2019;38(6):2552-2557.

Cornwall HL, Edwards BA, Curran JF, Boyce S. Coffee to go? The effect of coffee on resolution of ileus following abdominal surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Clin Nutr. 2020;39(5):1385-1394.

Dai ZW, Cai KD, Li FR, Wu XB, Chen GC. Association between coffee consumption and risk of bladder cancer in a meta-analysis of 16 prospective studies. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2019;16:66.

Miranda AM, Goulart AC, Benseñor IM, Lotufo PA, Marchioni DM. Coffee consumption and risk of hypertension: A prospective analysis in the cohort study. Clin Nutr. 2020:S0261-5614(20)30289-2.

Ong JS, Law MH, An J, et al. Association between coffee consumption and overall risk of being diagnosed with or dying from cancer among >300 000 UK Biobank participants in a large-scale Mendelian randomization study. Int J Epidemiol. 2019 Oct 1;48(5):1447-1456.

Shao CC, Luo D, Pang GD, et al. A dose-response meta-analysis of coffee consumption and thyroid cancer occurrence. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2020;71(2):176-185.

Tverdal A, Selmer R, Cohen JM, Thelle DS. Coffee consumption and mortality from cardiovascular diseases and total mortality: Does the brewing method matter? Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2020:2047487320914443.

Yamakawa M, Wada K, Goto Y, et al. Associations between coffee consumption and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a Japanese city: the Takayama study. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22(14):2561-2568.

Zhou CD, Kuan AS, Reeves GK, et al. Coffee and pancreatic cancer risk among never-smokers in the UK prospective Million Women Study. Int J Cancer. 2019;145(6):1484-1492.

Stojanovic E, Scanlan AT, Milanovic Z, Fox JL, Stankovic R, Dalbo VJ. Acute caffeine supplementation improves jumping, sprinting, and change-of-direction performance in basketball players when ingested in the morning but not evening. Eur J Sport Sci. 2021:1-20.

Kanbay M, Siriopol D, Copur S, et al. Effect of coffee consumption on renal outcome: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. J Ren Nutr. 2021;31(1):5-20.

Chen X, Zhao Y, Tao Z, Wang K. Coffee consumption and risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2021;11(2):e038902.

Kishimoto Y, Saita E, Taguchi C, et al. Associations between green tea consumption and coffee consumption and the prevalence of coronary artery disease. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2020;66(3):237-245.

Komorita Y, Iwase M, Fujii H, et al. Additive effects of green tea and coffee on all-cause mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Fukuoka Diabetes Registry. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2020;8(1):e001252.

Du Y, Lv Y, Zha W, Hong X, Luo Q. Effect of coffee consumption on dyslipidemia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(12):2159-2170.

Mackintosh C, Yuan C, Ou FS, et al. Association of coffee intake with survival in patients with advanced or metastatic colorectal cancer. JAMA Oncol. 2020;6(11):1713-21.

Machado-Fragua MD, Struijk EA, Yévenes-Briones H, Caballero FF, Rodríguez-Artalejo F, Lopez-Garcia E. Coffee consumption and risk of hearing impairment in men and women. Clin Nutr. 2020:S0261-5614(20)30642-7.

Ruggiero E, Di Castelnuovo A, Costanzo S, et al. Daily coffee drinking is associated with lower risks of cardiovascular and total mortality in a general Italian population: Results from the Moli-sani study. J Nutr. 2020:nxaa365.

Kim Y, Je Y, Giovannucci E. Coffee consumption and all-cause and cause-specific mortality: a meta-analysis by potential modifiers. Eur J Epidemiol. 2019 Aug;34(8):731-752. doi: 10.1007/s10654-019-00524-3. Epub 2019 May 4.

Stevens LM, Linstead E, Hall JL, Kao DP. Association between coffee intake and incident heart failure risk: A machine learning analysis of the FHS, the ARIC Study, and the CHS. Circ Heart Fail. 2021:CIRCHEARTFAILURE119006799.

Ribeiro EM, Alves M, Costa J, Ferreira JJ, Pinto FJ, Caldeira D. Safety of coffee consumption after myocardial infarction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2020;30(12):2146-2158.

Grosso G, Micek A, Godos J, ET AL. Coffee consumption and risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality in smokers and non-smokers: a dose-response meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 2016;31(12):1191-1205.

Khaneghah AM, Fakhri Y, Abdi L, Coppa CFSC, Franco LT, de Oliveira CAF. The concentration and prevalence of ochratoxin A in coffee and coffee-based products: A global systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Fungal Biol. 2019;123(8):611-617.

Kim EJ, Hoffmann TJ, Nah G, Vittinghoff E, Delling F, Marcus GM. Coffee consumption and incident tachyarrhythmias: Reported behavior, mendelian randomization, and their interactions. JAMA Intern Med. 2021.

Loftfield E, Freedman ND, Graubard BI, et al. Association of coffee consumption with overall and cause-specific mortality in a large US prospective cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2015;182(12):1010-22.

Mesas AE, Leon-Muñoz LM, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Lopez-Garcia E. The effect of coffee on blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in hypertensive individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94(4):1113-26.

Miranda AM, Goulart AC, Benseñor IM, Lotufo PA, Marchioni DM. Moderate coffee consumption is associated with lower risk of mortality in prior Acute Coronary Syndrome patients: a prospective analysis in the ERICO cohort. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2020:1-11.

Nordestgaard AT, Nordestgaard BG. Coffee intake, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: observational and Mendelian randomization analyses in 95?000-223?000 individuals. Int J Epidemiol. 2016;45(6):1938-1952.

Zhang Y, Yang H, Li S, Li WD, Wang Y. Consumption of coffee and tea and risk of developing stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia: A cohort study in the UK Biobank. PLoS Med 2021;18(11):e1003830.

Sakamaki T, Kayaba K, Kotani K, et al. Coffee consumption and mortality in Japan with 18 years of follow-up: the Jichi Medical School Cohort Study. Public Health 2021;191:23-30.

Ellingjord-Dale M, Papadimitriou N, Katsoulis M, et al. Coffee consumption and risk of breast cancer: A Mendelian randomization study. PLoS One 2021;16(1):e0236904.

Moon SM, Joo MJ, Lee YS, Kim MG. Effects of Coffee Consumption on Insulin Resistance and Sensitivity: A Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2021;13(11):3976.

Ghavami HS, Khoshtinat M, Sadeghi-Farah S, Kalimani AB, Ferrie S, Faraji H. The relationship of coffee consumption and CVD risk factors in elderly patients with T2DM. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2021;21(1):241.

Torres-Collado L, Compañ-Gabucio LM, González-Palacios S, et al. Coffee Consumption and All-Cause, Cardiovascular, and Cancer Mortality in an Adult Mediterranean Population. Nutrients 2021;13(4):1241.

Kawanishi Y, Kakigano A, Kimura T, et al. Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy in Relation to Coffee and Tea Consumption: The Japan Environment and Children's Study. Nutrients 2021;13(2):343.

Chan L, Hong CT, Bai CH. Coffee consumption and the risk of cerebrovascular disease: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMC Neurol 2021;21(1):380.

Ran LS, Liu WH, Fang YY, et al. Alcohol, coffee and tea intake and the risk of cognitive deficits: a dose-response meta-analysis. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci 2021;30:e13.

Ramli NNS, Alkhaldy AA, Mhd Jalil AM. Effects of Caffeinated and Decaffeinated Coffee Consumption on Metabolic Syndrome Parameters: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Data from Randomised Controlled Trials. Medicina (Kaunas) 2021;57(9):957.

Ebadi M, Ip S, Bhanji RA, Montano-Loza AJ. Effect of Coffee Consumption on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Incidence, Prevalence and Risk of Significant Liver Fibrosis: Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients 2021;13(9):3042.

Kim Y, Lee J, Oh JH, et al. The Association between Coffee Consumption and Risk of Colorectal Cancer in a Korean Population. Nutrients 2021;13(8):2753.

Kim SA, Tan LJ, Shin S. Coffee Consumption and the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in the Korean Population. J Acad Nutr Diet 2021;121(11):2221-2232.

Wang M, Jian Z, Yuan C, Jin X, Li H, Wang K. Coffee Consumption and Prostate Cancer Risk: Results from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2010 and Mendelian Randomization Analyses. Nutrients 2021;13(7):2317.

Mansour A, Mohajeri-Tehrani MR, Samadi M, et al. Effects of supplementation with main coffee components including caffeine and/or chlorogenic acid on hepatic, metabolic, and inflammatory indices in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. Nutr J 2021;20(1):35.

Shahinfar H, Jayedi A, Khan TA, Shab-Bidar S. Coffee consumption and cardiovascular diseases and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2021;31(9):2526-2538.

Welty TE, Gidal BE, Duan J, et al. Coffee and cigarette smoking interactions with lamotrigine. Epilepsy Behav 2021;116:107741.

Teramoto M, Muraki I, Yamagishi K, Tamakoshi A, Iso H. Green Tea and Coffee Consumption and All-Cause Mortality Among Persons With and Without Stroke or Myocardial Infarction. Stroke 2021;52(3):957-965.

Kondo K, Suzuki K, Washio M, et al. Association between coffee and green tea intake and pneumonia among the Japanese elderly: a case-control study. Sci Rep 2021;11(1):5570.

Matsushita N, Nakanishi Y, Watanabe Y, et al. Association of coffee, green tea, and caffeine with the risk of dementia in older Japanese people. J Am Geriatr Soc 2021;69(12):3529-3544.

Zheng KH, Zhu K, Wactawski-Wende J, et al. Caffeine intake from coffee and tea and invasive breast cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative. Int J Cancer 2021;149(12):2032-2044.

Wang S, Li X, Yang Y, et al. Does coffee, tea and caffeine consumption reduce the risk of incident breast cancer? A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Public Health Nutr 2021;24(18):6377-6389.

Alshabi AM, Alkahtani SA, Shaikh IA, Habeeb MS. Caffeine modulates pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of pioglitazone in diabetic rats: Impact on therapeutics. Saudi Med J 2021;42(2):151-160.

Gleason JL, Sundaram R, Mitro SD, et al. Association of maternal caffeine consumption during pregnancy with child growth. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(10):e2239609.

Yu J, Liang D, Li J, et al. Coffee, green tea intake, and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Nutr Cancer 2023;75(5):1295-1308.

Teramoto M, Yamagishi K, Muraki I, Tamakoshi A, Iso H. Coffee and green tea consumption and cardiovascular disease mortality among people with and without hypertension. J Am Heart Assoc 2023;12(2):e026477.

Liu D, Li ZH, Shen D, et al. Association of sugar-sweetened, artificially sweetened, and unsweetened coffee consumption with all-cause and cause-specific mortality : A large prospective cohort study. Ann Intern Med 2022;175(7):909-917.

Chieng D, Canovas R, Segan L, et al. The impact of coffee subtypes on incident cardiovascular disease, arrhythmias, and mortality: long-term outcomes from the UK Biobank. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2022;29(17):2240-2249.

Zeng X, Su Y, Tan A, et al. The association of coffee consumption with the risk of osteoporosis and fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2022;33(9):1871-1893.

Watanabe J, Miki A, Koizumi M, Kotani K, Sata N. Effect of postoperative coffee consumption on postoperative ileus after abdominal surgery: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2021;13(12):4394.

Gao Y, Zhai P, Jiang F, Zhou F, Wang X. Association between coffee drinking and endometrial cancer risk: A meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2022;48(3):774-795.

Han M, Oh Y, Myung SK. Coffee intake and risk of hypertension: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Korean Med Sci 2022;37(45):e332.

Song H, Shen X, Chu Q, Zheng X. Coffee consumption is not associated with the risk of gastric cancer: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Nutr Res 2022;102:35-44.

Yang TW, Wang CC, Sung WW, Ting WC, Lin CC, Tsai MC. The effect of coffee/caffeine on postoperative ileus following elective colorectal surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Colorectal Dis 2022;37(3):623-630.

Yang J, Tobias DK, Li S, et al. Habitual coffee consumption and subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes in individuals with a history of gestational diabetes - a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr 2022;116(6):1693-1703.

Lu YT, Gunathilake M, Lee J, et al. Coffee consumption and its interaction with the genetic variant AhR rs2066853 in colorectal cancer risk: a case-control study in Korea. Carcinogenesis 2022;43(3):203-216.

Sehrawat O, Mehra NS, Kowlgi NG, et al. Association between coffee consumption and incident atrial fibrillation (from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis [MESA]). Am J Cardiol 2023;186:5-10.

Komorita Y, Ohkuma T, Iwase M, et al. Relationship of coffee consumption with a decline in kidney function among patients with type?2 diabetes: The Fukuoka Diabetes Registry. J Diabetes Investig 2022;13(6):1030-1038.

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Marcus GM, Rosenthal DG, Nah G, et al. Acute effects of coffee consumption on health among ambulatory adults. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(12):1092-1100.

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Coffee - Uses, Side Effects, and More

Overview

Uses & Effectiveness

Likely Effective for

Possibly Effective for

Possibly Ineffective for

Side Effects

Special Precautions and Warnings

Interactions

Moderate Interaction

Verapamil (Calan, others) interacts with Coffee

Adenosine (Adenocard) interacts with Coffee

Phenylpropanolamine interacts with Coffee

Alendronate (Fosamax) interacts with Coffee

Birth control pills (Contraceptive drugs) interacts with Coffee

Clozapine (Clozaril) interacts with Coffee

Dipyridamole (Persantine) interacts with Coffee

Ephedrine interacts with Coffee

Levothyroxine (Synthroid, others) interacts with Coffee

Lithium interacts with Coffee

Medications for depression (MAOIs) interacts with Coffee

Medications for diabetes (Antidiabetes drugs) interacts with Coffee

Medications that slow blood clotting (Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet drugs) interacts with Coffee

Pentobarbital (Nembutal) interacts with Coffee

Riluzole (Rilutek) interacts with Coffee

Stimulant drugs interacts with Coffee

Pioglitazone (Actos) interacts with Coffee

Lamotrigine (Lamictal) interacts with Coffee

Nicotine interacts with Coffee

Water pills (Diuretic drugs) interacts with Coffee

Minor Interaction

Terbinafine (Lamisil) interacts with Coffee

Theophylline interacts with Coffee

Medications for asthma (Beta-adrenergic agonists) interacts with Coffee

Alcohol (Ethanol) interacts with Coffee

Antibiotics (Quinolone antibiotics) interacts with Coffee

Cimetidine (Tagamet) interacts with Coffee

Disulfiram (Antabuse) interacts with Coffee

Estrogens interacts with Coffee

Fluconazole (Diflucan) interacts with Coffee

Fluvoxamine (Luvox) interacts with Coffee

Medications for depression (Tricyclic antidepressants) interacts with Coffee

Mexiletine (Mexitil) interacts with Coffee

Phenothiazines interacts with Coffee

Dosing